Antigen-carbohydrate conjugates

ABSTRACT

The present invention generally relates to compositions comprising antigen-carbohydrate conjugates and methods of immune modulation featuring these reagents.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is the U.S. national stage of PCT/US2005/025461, filed on Jul. 18, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/588,671, filed on Jul. 16, 2004, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Each of the applications and patents cited in this text, as well as each document or reference cited in each of the applications and patents (including during the prosecution of each issued patent; “application cited documents”), and each of the PCT and foreign applications or patents corresponding to and/or claiming priority from amy of these applications and patents, and each of the documents cited or referenced in each of the application cited documents, are hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference. More generally, documents or references are cited in this text, either in a Reference List before the claims, or in the text itself; and, each of these documents or references (“herein-cited references”), as well as each document or reference cited in each of the herein-cited references (including any manufacturer's specifications, instructions, etc.), is hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference.

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

Various aspects of the present invention were sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (grant nos. RO1 HL62598-01A1 and R21AIO63081-01). The Government has certain rights.

SEQUENCE LISTING

This application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Aug. 16, 2010, is named 63677515.txt, and is 49,586 bytes in size.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The present invention generally relates to antigen presentation and/or immune modulation using antigen-carbohydrate conjugates and, in particular, to antigen presentation and/or immune modulation using antigen-carbohydrate conjugates able to bind lectins on dendritic cells or other antigen presenting cells.

BACKGROUND

Dendritic cells (“DC”) are one type of antigen-presenting cell (“APC”) of the immune system. Dendritic cells typically ingest antigens by phagocytosis, pinocytosis, or via interaction with a variety of cell surface receptors and endocytosis; degrade the antigens; then present fragments of those antigens in association with MI-IC (“major histocompatibility complex”) on their surfaces that other immune cells (primarily T cells) respond to. Dendritic cells can be characterized by long “dendritic” processes (resembling dendrites in nerve cells). These cells are typically found in nonlymphoid organs, for example, the skin (where they are called Langerhans cells), nose, heart, liver, kidneys, lungs, stomach, intestines, etc., where they are able to capture antigens. It is believed that, upon capturing antigens, dendritic cells migrate through the circulation (blood and lymph) to the lymphoid organs where they can interact with T cells to induce their proliferation, activation to effectors, activation to memory, deletion (death), anergy (inactivation) or regulatory functions (e.g., Tr1, Tr2).

Lectins are glycoproteins that can bind carbohydrates. Molecular analysis of dendritic cells has revealed that they express a variety of these carbohydrate-specific proteins. It has been demonstrated that the lectins function in dendritic cells to capture and direct antigens to specialized antigen-processing compartments within the cell, via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that lectin-ligand interactions can modulate cytokine production by dendritic cells as well as the maturation state of those cells. One class of lectins that often appear on dendritic cells are calcium-dependent carbohydrate binding proteins, or “C-type lectins.” Specific lectins may be expressed on each type of dendritic cell, such as the lectin Langerin on Langerhan dendritic cells, the lectin BDCA-2 on plasmacythid dendritic cells, or the lectin DC-SIGN on myeloid dendritic cells.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to antigen presentation and/or immune modulation using antigen-carbohydrate conjugates able to bind lectins on dendritic cells or other antigen presenting cells. The subject matter of the present invention involves, in some cases, interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and/or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and/or articles.

In one aspect, the invention generally comprises a composition containing at least one carbohydrate conjugated to a molecule, where the composition is capable of binding to a protein present on a cell. In one embodiment, the molecule is a protein, glycoprotein, a lipid, chemically modified lipid, or glycolipid, a polysaccharide, a small molecule.

In a related aspect, the invention provides a composition containing at least one carbohydrate conjugated to an antigen, where the composition is capable of binding to a protein present on an antigen-presenting cell.

In another related aspect, the invention provides a composition containing an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells, the conjugate containing mannose.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides an immunogenic composition containing at least one carbohydrate conjugated to an antigen in a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, where the composition is capable of modulating an immune response.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a composition, containing: an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of immunization. The method involves administering, to a subject (e.g., mammal or human), a composition containing a conjugate of an antigen and a carbohydrate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells, in an amount effective to immunize the subject to the antigen.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of inducing immunological tolerance, involving administering to a subject, a composition containing a conjugate of an antigen and a carbohydrate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells, in an amount effective to induce immunological tolerance of the subject to the antigen.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method that involves administering, to an antigen presenting cell an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on the antigen-presenting cell but that is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of modulating an immune response in a cell; the method involves contacting a cell of a subject with a composition of any one of the previous aspects, where the contacting modulates an immune response.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing, stabilizing, or ameliorating the symptoms of an allergic response in a subject in need thereof. The method involves contacting a cell of the subject with a composition of any previous aspect, where the contacting reduces, stabilizes, or ameliorates an allergic response. In one embodiment, the method ameliorates a disease or disorder selected from the group consisting of eczema, allergic rhinitis, coryza, hay fever, conjunctivitis, bronchial asthma, allergic asthma, urticaria, atopic dermatitis, anaphylaxis, food allergy, drug allergy, and angioedema.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing, stabilizing, or ameliorating the symptoms of an autoimmune response in a subject in need thereof, the method involves contacting a cell of the subject with a composition of any previous aspect, where the contacting reduces, stabilizes, or ameliorates an autoimmune response. In one embodiment, the method treats a disease or disorder selected from the group consisting of Addison's disease, autoimmune anemia, Goodpasture's syndrome, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura, type I diabetes, myasthenia gravis, ankylosing spondylitis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, Crohn's disease, scleroderma, Sjögren's syndrome, and systemic lupus erythematosus.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing, stabilizing, or ameliorating a pathogen infection in a subject in need thereof, the method involves contacting a cell of the subject with a composition of any previous aspect, where the contacting reduces, stabilizes, or ameliorates a pathogen infection. In one embodiment, the pathogen infection is a bacterial infection, a viral infection, or a fungal infection. In one embodiment, the bacteria is selected from the group consisting of Helicobacter pyloris, Borelia burgdorferi, Legionella pneumophilia, Mycobacteria sps (e.g., M. tuberculosis, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. kansaii, M. gordonae, etc.), Staphylococcus aureus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus), Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus), Streptococcus (viridans group), Streptococcus faecalis, Streptococcus bovis, Streptococcus (anaerobic species), Streptococcus pneumoniae, pathogenic Campylobacter sp., Enterococcus sp., Haemophilus influenzae, Bacillus antracis, corynebacterium diphtheriae, corynebacterium sp., Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Clostridium perfringers, Clostridium tetani, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pasturella multocida, Bacteroides sp., Fusobacterium nucleatum, Streptobacillus moniliformis, Treponema pallidium, Treponema pertenue, Leptospira, Rickettsia, and Actinomyces israelli. In one embodiment, the method the virus is selected from the group consisting of Retroviridae, human immunodeficiency viruses, Picornaviridae, Calciviridae, Togaviridae, Flaviridae, Coronoviridae, Rhabdoviradae, Coronaviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Filoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Bungaviridae, Arena viridae, Reoviridae, Birnaviridae, Hepadnaviridae, Parvovirida, Papovaviridae, Adenoviridae (adenoviruses), Herpesviridae, Poxyiridae, and Iridoviridae. In another embodiment, the fungus is selected from the group consisting of Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Candida albicans.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides method of treating a neoplasm in a subject, the method involves contacting a cell of the subject in need thereof with a composition of any previous aspect, where the contacting reduces, stabilizes, or ameliorates the symptoms of a neoplasm. In one embodiment, the neoplasm is selected from the group consisting of acute lymphoblastic leukemia, glioma, bladder cancer, billiary cancer, breast cancer, cervical carcinoma, colon carcinoma, colorectal cancer, choriocarcinoma, epithelial cell-cancer, gastric cancer, hepatocellular cancer, Hodgkins lymphoma, lung cancer, lymphoid cell-derived leukemia, myeloma, non-small cell lung carcinoma, nasopharyngeal cancer, ovarian cancer cancer, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer, renal cancer, testicular cancer, T cell leukemia, and melanoma.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides method of enhancing antigen presentation by a cell, the method involves contacting an antigen-presenting cell with at least one oligosaccharide conjugated to an antigen or antigen mimetic, where the contacting enhances antigen presentation by the antigen-presenting cell.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides method of increasing T cell proliferation in a subject, the method involves contacting an antigen-presenting cell with at least one oligosaccharide conjugated to an antigen or antigen mimetic, where the contacting enhances antigen presentation by the antigen-presenting cell.

In another aspect, kit for modulating an immune response, the kit contains the composition of any previous aspect. In one embodiment, the kit further contains directions for administering the composition to the subject.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of generating an antigen carbohydrate conjugate. The method involves conjugating an antigen to a carbohydrate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method that involves providing a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells screening a carbohydrate library to identify carbohydrates able to bind the lectin; and conjugating an antigen to one of the identified carbohydrates able to bind the lectin.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of immunization. The method involves administering, to a subject, a composition containing a conjugate of an antigen and a carbohydrate, containing mannose, that is able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells, in an amount effective to immunize the subject to the antigen.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of inducing immunological tolerance. The method involves administering, to a subject, a composition containing a conjugate of an antigen and a carbohydrate, containing mannose, that is able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells, in an amount effective to induce immunological tolerance of the subject to the antigen.

In yet another aspect, the invention features a method involving administering, to an antigen-presenting cell, an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on the antigen-presenting cell, the conjugate containing mannose.

In yet another aspect, the invention features a method, involving conjugating an antigen to a carbohydrate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen presenting cells, the carbohydrate containing mannose.

In yet another aspect, the invention features a method that involves providing a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells, but that is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells; screening a carbohydrate library to identify carbohydrates able to bind the lectin; and conjugating an antigen to one of the identified carbohydrates able to bind the lectin.

In various embodiments of any of the above aspects, the antigen is a protein, glycoprotein, a lipid, chemically modified lipid, glycolipid, a polysaccharide, or a small molecule (e.g., a molecule having a molecular weight between 100 and 2,000 daltons, where the lower limit of the range is any integer between 100 and 1,999; and the upper limit of the range is any integer between 101 and 2000. In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the protein present on the cell is a carbohydrate binding protein (e.g., a lectin, such as an I-type, S-type, P-type, or C-type lectin).

In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the cell is an antigen-presenting cell, such as a dendritic cell. In yet other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the carbohydrate is selected from the group consisting of monosaccharides, oligosaccharides (e.g., a branched oligosaccharide or a linear oligosaccharide), and polysaccharides. In various embodiments of the above aspects, the composition comprises at least two, three, four, or five oligosaccharides, where at least one, two, three, four, or five of the oligosaccharides are different and the addition of the carbohydrate increases the molecular weight of the antigen between 25 and 1000 daltons (e.g., 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 750 daltons) or between 2, 5, 10, 15, and 45 kDa, where the lower end of the range is any integer between 25 daltons and 44 kDa, and the upper end of the range is any integer between 26 daltons and 45 kDa.

In various embodiments of any of the above aspects, the carbohydrate is selected from the group consisting of structures 3-1 to 3-7 (FIG. 1). In other embodiments, the carbohydrate is a mannose oligosaccharide (e.g., (Man)₉(GlcNAc)₂), or an analog thereof.

In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the carbohydrate is conjugated to the antigen via a linker (e.g., a thiol-bearing linker), such as a linker that has the following structure:

In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the antigen is an autoimmune antigen (e.g., a glutamate decarboxylase, insulin-B, myelin basic protein, or acetylcholine receptor alpha subunit), and the composition containing the antigen is useful for the treatment of any one or more of the following Addison's disease, autoimmune anemia, Goodpasture's syndrome, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura, type I diabetes, myasthenia gravis, ankylosing spondylitis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, Crohn's disease, scleroderma, Sjögren's syndrome, and systemic lupus erythematosus.

In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the antigen is a tumor antigen (e.g., alpha-fetoprotein, Ig-idiotype, mutant cyclin-dependent kinase 4, Pmel-17, MART-1, p15 protein, tyrosinase, MAGE 1, 2 and 3, a Gage family member, BAGE, human papilloma virus antigens E6 and E7, an Epstein-ban virus antigen, bcr-abl fusion product, gp75, oncofetal antigen, mucin, telomerase, GM2 ganglioside, GD2 ganglioside, mutant p53, mutant cdk4, p21ras, HER21neu, c-erbB-2, colorectal associated antigen (CRC)-0017-1A/GA733, APC, cyclophilin b, ga733 glycoprotein, Imp-1, EBNA-1, prostate specific antigen, pancreatic tissue antigen, prostate specific membrane antigen, thyroglobulin, carcinoembryonic antigen, NY-ESO-1, HTLV-1, cdc27, and gp100_(Pme1117)) useful for the treatment of any one or more of the following cancers: acute lymphoblastic leukemia, B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, glioma, bladder cancer, billiary cancer, breast cancer, Burkitt's lymphoma, cervical carcinoma, chronic myelogenous leukemia, colon carcinoma, colorectal cancer, choriocarcinoma, epithelial cell-cancer, gastric cancer, hepatocellular cancer, Hodgkins lymphoma, liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoid cell-derived leukemia, myeloma, non-small cell lung carcinoma, nasopharyngeal cancer, ovarian cancer cancer, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer, renal cancer, testicular cancer, thyroid cancer, T cell leukemia, and melanoma.

In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the antigen is derived from airborne particulates, plant pollen, mites, molds, spores, animal hair, dander, shellfish, nuts, fruits, insects, insect venoms, penicillins, sulfonamides, eggs, peas, and beans.

In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the antigen is a pathogen antigen derived from a bacteria (e.g., Helicobacter pyloris, Borelia burgdorferi, Legionella Mycobacteria sps (e.g., M. tuberculosis, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. kansaii, M. gordonae, etc.), Staphylococcus aureus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus), Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus), Streptococcus (viridans group), Streptococcus faecalis, Streptococcus bovis, Streptococcus (anaerobic species), Streptococcus pneumoniae, pathogenic Campylobacter sp., Enterococcus sp., Haemophilus influenzae, Bacillus antracis, corynebacterium diphtheriae, corynebacterium sp., Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Clostridium perfringers, Clostridium tetani, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pasturella multocida, Bacteroides sp., Fusobacterium nucleatum, Streptobacillus moniliformis, Treponema pallidium, Treponema pertenue, Leptospira, Rickettsia, and Actinomyces israelli),

In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the antigen is a pathogen antigen derived from a virus (e.g., Retroviridae, human immunodeficiency viruses, Picornaviridae, Calciviridae, Togaviridae, Flaviridae, Coronoviridae, Rhabdoviradae, Coronaviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Filoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Bungaviridae, Arena viridae, Reoviridae, Birnaviridae, Hepadnaviridae, Parvovirida, Papovaviridae, Adenoviridae (adenoviruses), Herpesviridae, Poxyiridae, and Iridoviridae), or fungus (e.g., Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Candida albicans). Exemplary antigens include human immunodeficiency virus gp120 protein, malarial Merozoite Surface Protein-1, Apical membrane protein-1, Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein, tuberculosis antigen 85 A/B, ESAT-6, tuberculosis heat shock protein 60, influenza hemaglutinin, influenza neuraminidase, hepatitis B virus antigen.

In various embodiments, the antigen is derived from a non-human source, a non-living source, a biological species that the subject is not a member of. In other embodiments, the composition comprises a pool of suspected antigens isolated from a source, a pool of suspected antigens that is artificially generated.

In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the carbohydrate comprises a plurality of mannose residues. In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the lectin is an I-type, S-type, P-type, or C-type lectin (e.g., DC-SIGN, a type I, or type II C-type lectin) or the lectin comprises SEQ ID NO: 10. In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the lectin is expressed on a dendritic cell (e.g., a human cell in vivo or ex vivo).

In other embodiments of the above aspects, the antigen is pre-selected or arises from a pool of suspected antigens. In yet other embodiments, the carbohydrate-antigen conjugate is capable of enhancing or reducing by at least 5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% relative to a reference immune response occurring in the absence of the conjugate. In other embodiments of the above aspects, the carbohydrate comprises a hexose, fucose, galactose, a lectin ligand (e.g., at least 2, 3, 4, or 5 mannose residues), a plurality of mannose residues, where the lectin (e.g., Dectin 1, Dectin 2, BDCA-2, CLEC-1, or SEQ ID NO: 10) is expressed on dendritic cells (e.g., human).

In yet other embodiments, the composition comprises more than one conjugate type. In yet other embodiments, the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate is bound to a hapten. In other embodiments of any of the above aspects, the composition further contains a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, an adjuvant, or a cytokine.

In various embodiments of the above methods, the method further comprises administering a cytokine or an adjuvant to the subject. In various other embodiments, the amount is effective to promote dendritic cell maturation. In other embodiments, the composition is effective to inhibit dendritic cell maturation, to induce T cell anergy, to induce T cell deletion, to induce T cell regulatory activity. In various embodiments of any of the above aspects, the subject is a mammal, such as a human. In yet other embodiments, the cell (e.g., a human cell ex vivo or in vivo) of any of the above aspects functions in an adaptive immune response (e.g., the cell is an antigen-presenting cell, or is a dendritic cell).

In another aspect, the invention is a method. In one set of embodiments, the method includes an act of exposing an antigen-presenting cell, such as a dendritic cell, to a composition comprising an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate able to bind a lectin expressable on the antigen-presenting cell. The act of exposing may occur ex vivo, in vitro, or in vivo. The method, according to another set of embodiments, includes an act of administering, to a subject such as a human, a composition comprising an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells. In one embodiment, the lectin is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells. In another embodiment, the carbohydrate includes mannose.

In another set of embodiments, the method is a method of immunization. In one embodiment, the method includes an act of administering, to a subject, a composition comprising a conjugate of an antigen and a carbohydrate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells, in an amount effective to immunize the subject to the antigen. In one embodiment, the lectin is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells. In another embodiment, the carbohydrate includes mannose.

In another set of embodiments, the method is a method of inducing immunological tolerance. In one embodiment, the method includes an act of administering, to a subject, a composition comprising a conjugate of an antigen and a carbohydrate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells, in an amount effective to induce immunological tolerance of the subject to the antigen. In one embodiment, the lectin is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells. In another embodiment, the carbohydrate includes mannose.

In yet another set of embodiments, the method comprises an act of administering, to an antigen-presenting cell, an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on the antigen-presenting cell. In one embodiment, the lectin is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells. In another embodiment, the carbohydrate includes mannose.

In one set of embodiments, the method comprises an act of conjugating an antigen to a carbohydrate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells. In one embodiment, the lectin is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells. In another embodiment, the carbohydrate includes mannose.

Yet another set of embodiments provides a method comprising acts of providing a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells, and screening a carbohydrate library to identify carbohydrates able to bind the lectin. In certain instances, the method also includes conjugating an antigen to one of the identified carbohydrates able to bind the lectin. In one embodiment, the lectin is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells. In another embodiment, the carbohydrate includes mannose.

Another aspect of the invention provides a composition comprising an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells. In one embodiment, the lectin is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells. In another embodiment, the carbohydrate includes a hexose, such as mannose, fucose, galactose, etc. In certain cases, the carbohydrate includes multiple saccharide residues, for example, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. residues.

In some cases, the lectin may be expressed on dendritic cells, ex vivo, in vitro, or in vivo. The lectin may be, for example, a Type I or a Type II C-type lectin. Non-limiting examples of lectins include DC-SIGN, Dectin 1, Dectin 2, BCDA-2, CLEC-1, etc. In certain instances, the subject may be a mammal, such as a human.

The antigen, in some cases, may comprise a protein, for example, ovalbumin or BSA. The antigen may arise from a pool of suspected antigens (which may be isolated from a source, artificially generated, etc.), and/or the antigen may be pre-selected in some cases. The antigen may be derived from the subject, from another member of the biological species that the subject is a member of, or from a biological species that the subject is not a member of. For example, the antigen may be derived from a non-human and/or a non-living source.

In some cases, the composition may also include other entities as well, for example, adjuvants, cytokines, haptens, other conjugates, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, or the like.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of making one or more of the embodiments described herein. In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of using one or more of the embodiments described herein. In still another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of promoting one or more of the embodiments described herein.

Other advantages and novel features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying figures. In cases where the present specification and a document incorporated by reference include conflicting and/or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying figures which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures, each identical or nearly identical component illustrated is typically represented by a single numeral. For the purposes of clarity, not every component is labeled in every figure, nor is every component of each embodiment of the invention shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention.

FIG. 1 shows the molecular structure of synthetic analogs of the high-mannose oligosaccharide (Man)₉(GlcNAc)₂ used in the preparation of ovalbumin conjugates for dendritic cell targeting. These structures were chosen for dendritic cell targeting on the basis of their recognition by the dendritic cell lectin, DC-SIGN. The panel of structures consists of three branched oligosaccharides (3-1 thru 3-3), two linear trisaccharides (3-4 and 3-5) derived from the D1 and D3 arms of the high-mannose nonasaccharide and two monosaccharides, mannose 3-6 and galactose 3-7. Conjugation of each structure was made possible by the incorporation of a thiol-bearing linker (shown as ‘R’ here).

FIGS. 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D are four panels showing that carbohydrate modification of OVA led to enhanced presentation to antigen specific T cells. FIG. 2A shows a Western blot of OVA, SMCC-activated OVA and carbohydrate modified OVA that were resolved by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and immunoblotted with an anti-OVA polyclonal antibody to reveal changes in molecular weight as a function of carbohydrate addition. FIG. 2B is a graph showing that oligosaccharide modification of OVA elicits stronger presentation to OTII T cells than unmodified OVA. Unfractionated OTII splenocytes (3×10⁵/well) were incubated with graded doses of OVA or oligosaccharide-modified OVA for eighty-four hours with [³H]thymidine (1 μCi) added for the last 12 hours. Thereafter [³H]thymidine incorporation levels were measured and plotted. FIG. 2C is a graph showing that observed enhancements in antigen presentation of (OVA)-3-1 to T cells is carbohydrate dependent. Splenocytes were incubated with antigen as in (B)±(BSA)-3-1 (10 μg mL⁻¹). In cases where (OVA)-3-1 was added to OVA wells to assess the possibility of direct activation of T cells (see text), (OVA)-3-1 was present at 50 ng mL⁻¹; incubations were performed for seventy-two hours with [³H]thymidine (1 μCi) added for the last 12 hours. FIG. 2D is a graph showing that the receptor mediated uptake of (OVA)-3-1 has a different binding profile than that observed for DC-SIGN. Unfractionated splenocytes were incubated with OVA or (OVA)-3-1±mBSA or Lewis^(x)-BSA (each at 100 μg mL⁻¹). Incubations were performed for seventy-two hours with [³H]thymidine (1 μCi) added for the last twelve hours. All values reported are the mean of triplicate measurements.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are graphs showing that nonasaccharide 3-1-promoted presentation via MHC class I pathway for presentation to CD8⁺ T cells. FIG. 3A shows that (OVA)-3-1 enhanced presentation of antigenic peptides to CD8⁺ T cells in a dose- and carbohydrate-dependent fashion. Unfractionated OTI splenocytes (3×10⁵/well) were incubated with graded doses of OVA±(OVA)-3-1 (50 ng mL⁻¹) or (OVA)-3-1±(BSA)-3-1 (10 μg mL⁻¹). Incubations were performed for seventy-two hours with [³H]thymidine (1 μCi) added for the last twelve hours. FIG. 3B is a graph showing that the monosaccharide mannose 3-6 targets a different receptor than 3-1. OTII splenocytes were incubated with graded doses of monosaccharide-modified OVA±(BSA)-3-1 and T cell proliferation was measured as described for FIG. 3A. Values present the mean of triplicate measurements.

FIGS. 4A, 4B, 4C and 4D are graphs showing that CD11c⁺ dendritic cells are the main antigen presenting cells presenting 3-1-targeted antigen. FIG. 4A shows that purified CD11c⁺ dendritic cells efficiently present (OVA)-3-1 to purified CD4⁺ T cells. 1.5×10⁴ Splenic CD11c⁺ dendritic cells purified from C57BL/6 mice and 3.0×10⁴ purified OTII T cells were incubated with OVA (starting concentration 300 μg mL⁻¹) or (OVA)-3-1 (starting concentration 25 μg mL⁻¹) in graded doses for eight-four hours with [³H]thymidine (1 μCi) added for the last twelve hours. FIG. 4B shows that the receptor mediating uptake of (OVA)-3-1 preferentially binds complex mannans. Purified CD11c⁺ dendritic cells and OTII T cells were incubated with (OVA)-3-1 (25 μg mL⁻¹)±each potential inhibitor (100 μg mL⁻¹). T cell proliferation was determined as for FIG. 4A. FIG. 4C shows that Toll-like receptor-induced dendritic cell maturation significantly decreased uptake and presentation of (OVA)-3-1 to T cells. CD11c⁺ dendritic cells and OTII T cells were incubated with OVA or (OVA)-3-1±lipopolysaccharide (1 μmL⁻¹). Also included are all ‘non-dendritic cells’ (macrophages and B cells) obtained during the purification of the dendritic cells. T cell proliferation was determined as described in FIG. 4A. FIG. 4D shows that targeting (OVA)-3-1 to dendritic cells leads to a more vigorous T cell response in a highly pro-inflammatory situation. Supernatants from cells described in FIG. 4C were collected at forty-eight and seventy-two hours and measured for IFN-γ by ELISA; the values presented are from the seventy-two hour time point. All measurements here were performed in triplicate.

FIG. 5 is a graph showing that both dendritic cell subsets, i.e., cells that are CD8α+ and CD8α⁻, can present (OVA)-301. CD11c+ dendritic cells were stained with antibody against CD8α and I-A^(b) MHC class H molecules and sorted into their respective CD8α+ and CD8α⁻ populations. 2×10⁴ cells of each subtype were incubated with 1×10⁵ purified OTII T cells with graded doses of OVA or (OVA)-3-1 for eighty-four hours with [³H]thymidine (1 μCi) added for the last twelve hours. All data points were performed in triplicate.

FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C are a schematic diagram (FIG. 6A) and a series of flow cytometry dot plots (FIGS. 6B and 6C). FIG. 6A is a schematic diagram that illustrates the adoptive transfer technique: CD4⁺CD45.2⁺ ovalbumin-specific T cells are adoptively transferred to congenic CD45.1⁺ recipients. After immunization the draining lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs (e.g., the spleen) are isolated. Cells from these tissues are stained with an antibody against the CD45.2 isoform and the OTII T cell receptor to identify the original donor cells. FIG. 2B immunization with (OVA)-3-1 promotes expansion of OVA-specific T cells. B6.Ly5.2/Cr mice were injected intravenously with 2×10⁷ OTII splenocytes. 24 hours later the mice were injected subcutaneously with PBS, OVA (200 ng), or (OVA)-3-1 (200 ng). FIG. 6C shows that 3 days after immunization, draining inguinal lymph nodes and spleen were isolated and the expansion of CD45.2⁺Vα2 cells was evaluated by flow cytometry. Each panel represents two or more experiments.

FIGS. 7A and 7B are a series of dot plots showing that inflammatory stimuli dampen the effects of DC targeting by (OVA)-3-1. FIG. 7A includes two dot plots showing the 5-(6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE), a cell-permeable dye, intensity present in a population of cells. 2×10⁷ CFSE-labeled OTII splenocytes were adoptively transferred to B6.Ly5.2/Cr recipients and the mice were immunized subcutaneously with OVA (200 ng) or (OVA)-3-1 (200 ng) emulsified in Complete Freund's Adjuvant. At seventy-two hours post immunization the draining inguinal lymph nodes were isolated and the expansion of CD45.2⁺Vα2⁺ was evaluated for CFSE dilution by flow cytometry. 4×10⁵ total counts were collected. The plots display the CFSE intensity associated with the gated population of Vα2⁺CD45.2⁺ donor cells. The numbers indicate the percentage of CFSE high (undivided; R3 gate) and CFSE low (divided; R4 gate) OTII T cells. FIG. 7B is a series of five dot plots showing the enhancement in T cell proliferation promoted by neoglycoprotein mBSA. CFSE-labeled OTII splenocytes were adoptively transferred as in (A) and mice were immunized subcutaneously with mBSA (50 μg); OVA (50 ng); (OVA)-3-1 (50 ng); OVA (50 ng)+mBSA (50 μg) or (OVA)-3-1 (50 ng)+mBSA (50 μg). At 3 days the mice were sacrificed and isolated cells were analyzed as described in (A). Both FIGS. 7A and 7B are results from one of two separate experiments.

FIGS. 8A and 8B are a series of dot plots (FIG. 8A) and a graph (FIG. 8B) showing that the oligosaccharide-mediated targeting of steady state dendritic cells leads to T cell tolerance. FIG. 8A is a series of five dot plots showing that at day ten after immunization, (OVA)-3-1 immunized mice have a much greater number of OTII T cells than OVA immunized mice. 2×10⁷ OTII splenocytes were adoptively transferred into B6.Ly5.2/Cr recipients and then immunized by subcutaneous injection with PBS, OVA (200 ng), (OVA)-3-1 (200 ng), (OVA)-3-1 (200 ng)+mBSA (50 μg) or OVA peptide (100 μg) in Incomplete Freund's Adjuvant. At 8 days after these initial immunizations, mice received an antigenic rechallenge of OVA peptide (100 μg) in Complete Freund's Adjuvant. On day ten mice were sacrificed and cells were isolated from the draining lymph node, total T cells were purified by negative selection and the number of OTII T cells were counted by FACS as described for FIG. 6. FIG. 8B is a graph showing that isolated T cells from (OVA)-3-1 immunized mice are refractory to antigenic stimulation in vitro. Purified T cells from each experimental group were seeded at 3×10⁵ cells/well with purified CD1 dendritic cells (9×10⁴/well) and were incubated for twenty-four hours±OVA peptide (100 μg mL⁻¹) with [³H]thymidine (1 μCi) added for the last ten hours. Prior to [³H]thymidine addition, an aliquot of supernatant was removed for IFN-γ determination by ELISA.

FIGS. 9A, 9B, and 9C relate to the carbohydrate recognition domain of a C-type lectin. FIG. 9A shows the sequence of the CRD (SEQ ID NO: 10). FIG. 9B is a schematic diagram showing the organization of the domain. FIG. 9C provides an alignment of the amino acid sequences of the rat mannose binding protein C (SEQ ID NO: 11) and murine L-selectin (SEQ ID NO: 12).

FIG. 10 depicts a conjugation scheme applicable to thiol-modified carbohydrates.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCES SEQ ID NO: 1 is MMR or CD206, having an amino acid sequence MRLPLLLVFASVIPGAVLLLDTRQFLIYNEDHKRCVDAVSPSAVQTAACNQDAESQ KFRWVSESQIMSVAFKLCLGVPSKTDWVAITLYACDSKSEFQKWECKNDTLLGIKG EDLFFNYGNRQEKNIMLYKGSGLWSRWKIYGTTDNLCSRGYEAMYTLLGNANGA TCAFPFKFENKWYADCTSAGRSDGWLWCGTTIDYDTDKLFGYCPLKFEGSESLWN KDPLTSVSYQINSKSALTWHQARKSCQQQNAELLSITEIHEQTYLTGLTSSLTSGLWI GLNSLSFNSGWQWSDRSPFRYLNWLPGSPSAEPGKSCVSLNPGKNAKWENLECVQ KLGYICKKGNTTLNSFVIPSESDVPTHCPSQWWPYAGHCYKIHRDEKKIQRDALTTC RKEGGDLTSIHTIEELDFIISQLGYEPNDELWIGLNDIKIQMYFEWSDGTPVTFTKWL RGEPSHENNRQEDCVVMKGKDGYWADRGCEWPLGYICKMKSRSQGPEIVEVEKG CRKGWKKHHFYCYMIGHTLSTFAEANQTCNNENAYLTTIEDRYEQAFLTSFVGLRP EKYFWTGLSDIQTKGTFQWTIEEEVRFTHWNSDMPGRKPGCVAMRTGIAGGLWDV LKCDEKAKFVCKHWAEGVTHPPKPTTTPEPKCPEDWGASSRTSLCFKLYAKGKHE KKTWFESRDFCRALGGDLASINNKEEQQTIWRLITASGSYHKLFWLGLTYGSPSEGF TWSDGSPVSYENWAYGEPNNYQNVEYCGELKGDPTMSWNDINCEHLNNWICQIQ KGQTPKPEPTPAPQDNPPVTEDGWVIYKDYQYYFSKEKETMDNARAFCKRINFGDL VSIQSESEKKFLWKYVNRNDAQSAYFIGLLISLDKKFAWMDGSKVDYVSWATGEP NFANEDENCVTMYSNSGFWNDINCGYPNAFICQRHNSSINATTVMPTMPSVPSGCK EGWNFYSNKCFKIFGFMEEERKNWQEARKACIGFGGNLVSIQNEKEQAFLTYHMK DSTFSAWTGLNDVNSEHTFLWTDGRGVHYTNWGKGYPGGRRSSLSYEDADCVVII GGASNEAGKWMDDTCDSKRGYICQTRSDPSLTNPPATIQTDGFVKYGKSSYSLMR QKFQWHEAETYCKLHNSLIASILDPYSNAFAWLQMETSNERVWIALNSNLTDNQYT WTDKWRVRYTNWAADEPKLKSACVYLDLDGYWKTAHCNESFYFLCKRSDEIPAT EPPQLPGRCPESDHTAWIPFHGHCYYIESSYTRNWGQASLECLRMGSSLVSIESAAE SSFLSYRVEPLKSKTNFWIGLFRNVEGTWLWINNSPVSFVNWNTGDPSGERNDCVA LHASSGFWSNIHCSSYKGYICKRPKIIDAKPTHELLTTKADTRKMDPSKPSSNVAGV VIIVILLILTGAGLAAYFFYKKRRVHLPQEGAFENTLYFNSQSSPGTSDMKDLVGNIE QNEHSVI, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 2 is DEC-205 or CD205, having an amino acid sequence MRTGWATPRRPAGLLMLLFWFFDLAEPSGRAANDPFTIVHGNTGKCIKPVYGWIV ADDCDETEDKLWKWVSQHRLFHLHSQKCLGLDITKSVNELRMFSCDSSAMLWWK CEHHSLYGAARYRLALKDGHGTAISNASDVWKKGGSEESLCDQPYHEIYTRDGNS YGRPCEFPFLIDGTWHHDCILDEDHSGPWCATTLNYEYDRKWGICLKPENGCEDN WEKNEQFGSCYQFNTQTALSWKEAYVSCQNQGADLLSINSAAELTYLKEKBGIAKI FWIGLNQLYSARGWEWSDHKPLNFLNWDPDRPSAPTIGGSSCARMDAESGLWQSF SCEAQLPYVCRKPLNNTVELTDVWTYSDTRCDAGWLPNNGFCYLLVNESNSWDK AHAKCKAFSSDLISIHSLADVEVVVTKLHNEDIKEEVWIGLKNINIPTLFQWSDGTE VTLTYWDENEPNVPYNKTPNCVSYLGELGQWKVQSCEEKLKYVCKRKGEKLNDA SSDKMCPPDEGWKRHGETCYKIYBDEVPFGTNCNLTITSRFEQEYLNDLMKKYDKS LRKYFWTGLRDVDSCGEYNWATVGGRRRAVTFSNWNFLEPASPCGCVAMSTGKS VGKWEVKDCRSFKALSICKKMSGPLGPEEASPKPDDPCPEGWQSFPASLSCYKVFH AERIVRKRNWEEAERFCQALGAHLSSFSHVDEIKEFLHFLTDQFSGQHWLWIGLNK RSPDLQGSWQWSDRTPVSTIIMPNEFQQDYDIRDCAAVKVFHRPWRRGWHFYDDR EFIYLRPFACDTKLEWVCQIPKGRTPKTPDWYNPDRAGIHGPPLIIEGSEYWFVADL HLNYEEAVLYCASNHSFLATITSFVGLKAIKNKIANISGDGQKWWIRISEWPIDDHFT YSRYPWHRFPVTFGEECLYMSAKTWLIDLGKPTDCSTKLPPFICEKYNVSSLEKYSPD SAAKVQCSEQWIPFQNKCFLKIKPVSLTFSQASDTCHSYGGTLPSVLSQIEQDFITSL LPDMEATLWIGLRWTAYEKINKWTDNRELTYSNFHPLLVSGRLRPENFFEEESRYH CALILNLQKSPFTGTWNFTSCSERHFVSLCQKYSEVKSRQTLQNASETVKYLNNLY KIIPKTLTWHSAKRECLKSNMQLVSITDPYQQAFLSVQALLHNSSLWIGLFSQDDEL NFGWSDGKRLHFSRWAETNGQLEDCVVLDTDGFWKTVDCNDNQPGAICYYSGNE TEKEVKPVDSVKCPSPVLNTPWIPFQNCCYNFIITKNRHMATTQDEVHTKCQKLNP KSHILSIRDEKENNFVLEQLLYFNYMASWVMLGITYRNNSLMWFDKTPLSYTHWR AGRPTIKNEKFLAGLSTDGFWDIQTFKVIEEAVYFHQHSILACKIEMVDYKEEHNTT LPQFMPYEDGIYSVIQKKVTWYEALNMCSQSGGHLASVHNQNGQLFLEDIVKRDG FPLWVGLSSHDGSESSFEWSDGSTFDYIPWKGQTSPGNCVLLDPKGTWKHEKCNSV KDGAICYKPTKSKKLSRLTYSSRCPAAKENGSRWIQYKGHCYKSDQALHSFSEAKK LCSKHDHSATIVSIKDEDENKFVSRLMRENNNITMRVWLGLSQHSVDQSWSWLDG SEVTFVKWENKSKSGVGRCSMLIASNETWKKVECEHGFGRVVCKVPLGPDYTAIAI IVATLSILVLMGGLIWFLFQRHRLHLAGFSSVRYAQGVNEDEIMLPSFHD, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 3 is Dectin 1, having an amino acid sequence MEYHPDLENLDEDGYTQLHFDSQSNTRIAVVSEKGSCAASPPWRLIAVILGILCLVIL VIAVVLGTMAIWRSNSGSNTLENGYFLSRNKENHSQPTQSSLEDSVTPTKAVKTTG VLSSPCPPNWIIYEKSCYLFSMSLNSWDGSKRQCWQLGSNLLKIDSSNELGFIVKQV SSQPDNSFWIGLSRPQTEVPWLWEDGSTFSSNLFQIRTTATQENPSPNCVWIHVSVIY DQLCSVPSYSICEKKFSM, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 4 is Dectin 2, having an amino acid sequence MMQEQQPQSTEKRGWLSLRLWSVAGISIALLSACFIVSCVVTYHFTYGETGKRLSE LHSYHSSLTCFSEGTKVPAWGCCPASWKSFGSSCYFISSEEKVWSKSEQNCVEMGA HLVVFNTEAEQNFIVQQLNESFSYFLGLSDPQGNNNWQWIDKTPYEKNVRFWHLG EPNHSAEQCASIVFWKPTGWGWNDVICETRRNSICEMNKIYL, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 5 is Langerin or CD 207, having an amino acid sequence MTVEKEAPDAHFTVDKQNISLWPREPPPKSGPSLVPGKTPTVRAALICLTLVLVASV LLQAVLYPRFMGTISDVKTNVQLLKGRVDNISTLDSEIKKNSDGMEAAGVQIQMVN ESLGYVRSQFLKLKTSVEKANAQIQILTRSWEEVSTLNAQIPELKSDLEKASALNTKI RALQGSLENMSKLLKRQNDILQVVSQGWKYFKGNFYYFSLIPKTWYSAEQFCVSR NSHLTSVTSESEQEFLYKTAGGLIYWIGLTKAGMEGDWSWVDDTPFNKVQSARFW IPGEPNNAGNNEHCGNIKAPSLQAWNDAPCDKTFLFICKRPYVPSEP, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 6 is DC-SIGN or CD 209, having an amino acid sequence MSDSKEPRLQQLGLLEEEQLRGLGFRQTRGYKSLAGCLGHGPLVLQLLSFTLLAGL LVQVSKVPSSISQEQSRQDAIYQNLTQLKAAVGELSEKSKLQEIYQELTQLKAAVGE LPEKSKLQEIYQELTRLKAAVGELPEKSKLQEIYQELTWLKAAVGELPEKSKMQEIY QELTRLKAAVGELPEKSKQQEIYQELTRLKAAVGELPEKSKQQEIYQELTRLKAAV GELPEKSKQQEIYQELTQLKAAVERLCHPCPWEWTFFQGNCYFMSNSQRNWHDSIT ACKEVGAQLVVIKSAEEQNFLQLQSSRSNRFTWMGLSDLNQEGTWQWVDGSPLLP SFKQYWNRGEPNNVGEEDCAEFSGNGWNDDKCNLAKFWICKKSAASCSRDEEQFL SPAPATPNPPPA, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 7 is BDCA-2, having an amino acid sequence MVPEEEPQDREKGLWWFQLKVWSMAVVSILLLSVCFTVSSVVPHNFMYSKTVKRL SKLREYQQYHPSLTCVMEGKDIEDWSCCPTPWTSFQSSCYFISTGMQSWTKSQKNC SVMGADLVVINTREEQDFIIQNLKRNSSYFLGLSDPGGRRHWQWVDQTPYNENVTF WHSGEPNNLDERCAIINFRSSEEWGWNDIHCHVPQKSICKMKKIYI, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 8 is DCIR, having an amino acid sequence MTSEITYAEVRFKNEFKSSGINTASSAASKERTAPHKSNTGFPKLLCASLLIFFLLLAI SFFIAFVIFFQKYSQLLEKKTTKELVHTTLECVKKNMPVEETAWSCCPKNWKSFSSN CYFISTESASWQDSEKDCARMEAHLLVINTQEEQDFIFQNLQEESAYFVGLSDPEGQ RHWQWVDQTPYNESSTFWHPREPSDPNERCVVLNFRKSPKRWGWNDVNCLGPQR SVCEMMKIHL, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 9 is ASGPR, having an amino acid sequence MTKEYQDLQHLDNEESDHHQLRKGPPPPQPLLQRLCSGPRLLLLSLGLSLLLLVVV CVIGSQNSQLQEELRGLRETFSNFTASTEAQVKGLSTQGGNVGRKMKSLESQLEKQ QKDLSEDHSSLLLHVKQFVSDLRSLSCQMAALQGNGSERTCCPVNWVEHERSCYW FSRSGKAWADADNYCRLEDAHLVVVTSWEEQKFVQHHIGPVNTWMGLHDQNGP WKWVDGTDYETGFKNWRPEQPDDWYGHGLGGEDCAHFTDDGRWNDDVCQRP YRWVCETELDKASQEPPLL, arising from Homo sapiens; SEQ ID NO: 10 is CRD, a portion of consensus sequence of a C-type lectin carbohydrate-recognition domain, having the amino acid sequence shown in FIG. 9A SEQ ID NO: 11 is rat mannose binding protein C, having an amino acid sequence ENWGAGEPNNKKSKEDCVEIYIKRERDSGKWNDDACHKRKAALCY; SEQ ID NO: 12 is murine L-selectin, having an amino acid sequence TNWNEGEPNNVGSGENCVVLLTNGKWNDVPCSDSFLVVCE; and SEQ ID NO: 13 is CIRE, having an amino acid sequence MSDSKEMGKRQLRPLDEELLTSSHTRHSIKGFGFQTNSGFSSFTGCLVHSQVPLALQ VLFLAVCSVLLVVILVKVYKIPSSQEENNQMNVYQELTQLKAGVDRLCRSCPWDW THFQGSCYFFSVAQKSWNDSATACHNVGAQLVVIKSDEEQNFLQQTSKKRGYTW MGLIDMSKESTWYWVDGSPLTLSFMKYWSKGEPNNLGEEDCAEFRDDGWNDTKC TNKKFWICKKLSTSCPSK, arising from Mus musculus.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention generally relates to antigen presentation and/or immune modulation using antigen-carbohydrate conjugates able to bind lectins on dendritic cells or other antigen presenting cells, for example, to induce immunity or immunological tolerance (e.g., anergy) within a subject. In some cases, the lectins that the conjugates are able to bind are preferentially expressable by dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells, relative to other cells. In one aspect of the invention, dendritic cells and/or antigen-presenting cells are exposed to antigen-carbohydrate conjugates, in vivo, ex vivo, or in vitro. The carbohydrates of the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate may be selected for their ability to bind lectins, including lectins expressed by dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells. Optionally, other agents may be included with the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate, such as adjuvants, cytokines, haptens, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, etc. In another aspect of the invention, a carbohydrate may be identified by screening a carbohydrate library against a lectin, for example, that is expressed by a dendritic cell and/or other antigen-presenting cell. The carbohydrate may then be conjugated to an antigen. Other aspects of the invention relate to kits and compositions including certain antigen-carbohydrate conjugates, as well as techniques of making, using, and promoting such conjugates.

Various aspects of the present invention are directed to antigen-carbohydrate conjugates able to bind lectins expressable on the surfaces of dendritic cell and/or other antigen-presenting cell. As previously discussed, dendritic cells are one type of antigen-presenting cell found within the immune system, and can be found in many systems and organs within the body, especially the lymphoid organs. As used herein, the term “dendritic cell” is given its ordinary meaning in the art, and also includes specialized dendritic cells, such as Langerhans cells (which can express Langerin or CD 207), dermal dendritic cells, interstitial dendritic cells, interdigitating dendritic cells, follicular dendritic cells, blood dendritic cells, veiled cells, plasmacytoid BDCA-2-expressing dendritic cells, myeloid dendritic cells, CD1a+ dendritic cells, DC-SIGN-expressing dendritic cells, etc. By “DC-SIGN” is meant a protein that is substantially identical (e.g., having at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% amino acid sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO:6. In one embodiment, however, Langerin-negative dendritic cells are used. Examples of non-dendritic, antigen-presenting cells include macrophages and monocytes. Those of ordinary skill in the art will know of routine techniques for identifying dendritic cells relative to other cells of the immune system (e.g., B cells and T cells), for example, using various biomolecular assays, through microscopic examination, cytometry, etc. It should also be noted that certain antigen-carbohydrate conjugates described below may be selected for their ability to selectively bind to certain types of dendritic cells, relative to other types of dendritic cells. As a non-limiting example, an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate may be prepared that selectively binds a lectin expressed by dermal dendritic cells but is not substantially expressed by other dendritic cells such as Langerhan cells, etc.

Immune Condition Therapies

Exposure of dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells to antigen-carbohydrate conjugates may be useful, according to one set of embodiments, in the treatment of immune conditions in a subject, for example, to induce immunity against pathogens, tumor or other disease causing entities or tolerance (including anergy, deletion, and/or regulatory activity of T cells) against auto-antigens or allergens, or the like. A “subject,” as used herein, means a human or non-human mammal, including but not limited to, a dog, cat, horse, cow, pig, sheep, goat, chicken, primate, rat, and mouse. In some cases, the antigen-carbohydrate conjugates of the invention may be directly administered to a subject; in other cases, however, the subject may be indirectly exposed to the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate, e.g., the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate may be exposed to dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells in vitro, then the dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells are administered to the subject (e.g., ex vivo therapy).

Immunity Induction

In some embodiments, a subject is exposed to an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate to activate the immune system with respect to the antigen, e.g., to induce immunity to the antigen, and/or to entities that comprise the antigen. An “antigen” is any agent that can induce an immune response. The antigen within the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate may be any molecule that can be detected by the immune system, and for which a change in the immune response (i.e., immunity, tolerance, etc.) is desired. An “immune response” is any biological response to an antigen (e.g., any cellular response that contributes to adaptive or innate immunity). For example, the antigen may be a fungus, parasite, virus, worm, bacterium, or other pathogen. or the antigen may be a complex of molecules or a single molecular species (e.g., a polysaccharide, a protein such as ovalbumin, a peptide, a toxin, etc.) that arises from the above-described pathogens. Other examples of antigens are further described below. The antigen may be a nonself antigen (arising from non-human sources, such as the above-described pathogens and/or molecular components from the above-described pathogens; or from another human)-or a self antigen (arising from the subject, for example, normal cells, diseased cells, autoimmune tissues, tumors, etc.). If nonself, the antigen may be from the same or a different species as the subject. In some cases, the antigen may be attenuated (e.g., at least partially inactivated or crippled) or inactivated (e.g., killed or otherwise rendered into a nonfunctional state, such as for viruses or toxins). As one example, an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate, containing an antigen arising from a virus, bacterium, a cancer cell, etc., is administered to a subject, optionally along with an adjuvant such as alum, CpG, polyI:C, LPS, a dendritic cell activating agent, etc. The antigen-carbohydrate conjugate, upon binding to dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells within the subject, can cause an immune response to the antigen, e.g., due to exposure of T cells and/or B cells within the subject to the antigen, now associated with the dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells. The immune response may enable the subject's body to fight the infection or cancer more effectively, and/or the immune response may cause the subject to develop an immunity to future attacks of the virus, bacterium, cancer, etc.

In some cases, the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate may be delivered in an amount effective to “promote maturation of dendritic cells” and/or other antigen-presenting cells, i.e., the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate, when added to immature dendritic or other cells, accelerates their maturity with respect to their maturity rate in the absence of the conjugate. Those of ordinary skill in the art will know of suitable techniques for determining whether a given antigen-carbohydrate conjugate is able to promote maturation of dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells. For example, immature cells may be cultured in vitro, and one culture may be exposed to a antigen-carbohydrate conjugate while a control culture is kept free of the conjugate. The respective rates of maturity for the two cultures may then be determined and compared for statistical significance. This may be assessed, for instance, by examining cell surface molecules such as MHC class I, CD86, CD54, CD83, etc. Dendritic cell maturation (and/or maturation of other antigen-presenting cell) may enhance immunity of the subject to the antigen, for example, by enhancing the immune response tp the antigen.

Tolerance Induction

In another set of embodiments, a subject is exposed to an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate to cause anergy or tolerance within the subject with respect to the antigen. For example, the subject may be suffering from an allergy or hypersensitivity (e.g., to proteins, pollen, drugs such as penicillin or sulfonamides, nuts, seafood, eggs, peas, beans, venoms such as bee venom, molds, animal hair, dander, etc.), or the subject may be suffering from an autoimmune or inflammatory disease (e.g., Addison's disease, autoimmune anemia, Goodpasture's syndrome, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura, type I diabetes, myasthenia gravis, ankylosing spondylitis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, Crohn's disease, scleroderma, Sjögren's syndrome, or systemic lupus erythematosus, all of which have been characterized as chronic diseases caused, at least in part, by an immune system that is self-reactive) in which the subject's immune system abnormal attacks its own tissues, leading to tissue damage and/or disease.

For autoimmune diseases, it is possible to construct an couple carbohydrates to antigens that are found as targets of autoimmune responses (e.g. insulin or GAD for diabetes, myelin basic protein for multiple sclerosis, acetylcholine receptor for myasthenia gravis, etc.), immunize and thus reduce the autoimmune response due to T and B cells. (Yoon J W, Jun H S. Cellular and molecular pathogenic mechanisms of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Ann N Y Acad. Sci. 2001 April; 928:200-11; M S, Stinissen P, Medaer R, Raus J. Myelin reactive T cells in the autoimmune pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 1998 June; 4(3):203-11; De Baets M, Stassen M H. The role of antibodies in myasthenia gravis. J Neurol Sci. 2002 Oct. 15; 202(1-2):5-11;). Accordingly, autoimmune antigens useful in the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to the following: insulin-B (Genbank Accession No. J00265) or GAD (Genbank Accession No. M74826), myelin basic protein (Genbank Accession No. X17286), and acetylcholine receptor alpha subunit (Genbank Accession No. y00762).

In some cases, anergy may be induced by exposing the subject to low levels of an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate, thus causing the antigen to appear at relatively low concentrations within the dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells. The antigen may be a self-antigen in some instances, e.g., auto-immune diseases. In other cases, anergy may be induced by exposing the subject to an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate and also exposing the subject to a desensitizing agent, for example, CTLA4-Ig or a blocking antibody to CD40L, which may cause the relevant T cells to enter a state of anergy, and/or be deleted to become regulatory T cells.

The antigen-carbohydrate conjugate may be administered to the subject, in certain embodiments of the invention, in an amount that is effective to induce T cell anergy (in which T cells enter a state in which they cannot be reactivated by antigen), deletion (i.e., such that the T cells, upon exposure to the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate, undergo death and/or elimination), or other regulatory activity (e.g., where T cells are able to actively suppress other antigen-specific T cells from being activated). In one embodiment, the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate is delivered in an amount effective to tolerize allergen-specific T cells. In another embodiment, the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate is delivered in an amount effective to inhibit maturation of dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells. The inhibition can be complete or partial, i.e., by slowing cell maturation. Those of ordinary skill in the art will know of suitable techniques for determining whether a given antigen-carbohydrate conjugate is able to induce tolerance, for example, by measuring T cell activation to specific antigens ex vivo and determining the strength of the response before and after treatment of a subject with the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate.

In some embodiments of the invention, the antigen conjugated to the carbohydrate may arise from a pool of tissue/cell antigens, for instance, where antigens are derived from an animal, a plant, microbe, fungus, bacterium, virus, cell (normal or diseased), or other source of antigen. Multiple antigens may be present in certain instances. The pool of antigens may be isolated from a source, such as a living source, by lysing cells and tissues with cell disruption solutions (e.g. PBS+1% TritonX-100) and isolating antigens using appropriate purification procedures (e.g. size exclusion and ion exchange chromatography) or the pool of antigens may be artificially generated (for example, using available combinatorial chemistry techniques or over-expressing mixtures of recombinant antigens in mammalian cells, insect cells or bacteria). In some cases, the specific chemical identity of the antigen is not known, so king as the antigen can be conjugated to the carbohydrate. In other cases, however, the antigen may be pre-selected or predetermined. Non-limiting examples of such antigens include those described above.

Thus, in some cases, the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate can be delivered to a subject to treat an allergy within the subject. Examples of allergic conditions or diseases in humans that may be treated according to embodiments of the invention include, but are not limited to, eczema, allergic rhinitis or coryza, hay fever, conjunctivitis, bronchial or allergic asthma, urticaria (hives) and food allergies, atopic dermatitis, anaphylaxis, drug allergy, angioedema, and allergic conjunctivitis. Allergic diseases in dogs include, but are not limited to, seasonal dermatitis, perennial dermatitis, rhinitis: conjunctivitis, allergic asthma, and drug reactions. Allergic diseases in cats include but are not limited to dermatitis and respiratory disorders, and food allergens. Allergic diseases in horses include but are not limited to respiratory disorders, such as “heaves” and dermatitis. Allergic diseases in non-human primates include but are not limited to allergic asthma and allergic dermatitis.

Further examples of antigens, or entities in which suitable antigens can be derived from using techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art (e.g., antigen pools), include, but are not limited to, certain airborne particulates, plant pollen (e.g., weed pollen, grass pollen, Johnson grass, tree pollen (for example, oak, maple, cedar, etc.), ryegrass, etc.), mites (e.g., house dust mites), molds, spores, certain animals (e.g., cats, dogs, guinea pigs, hamsters, gerbils, rats, mice, etc.), food (e.g., crustaceans, nuts such as peanuts, citrus fruits, etc.), insect or insect venoms (e.g., Hymenoptera, yellow jacket, honeybee, wasp, hornet, fire ant, cockroaches, fleas, mosquitoes, etc.), bacteria (e.g., Streptococcus), parasites (e.g., plasmodium, Ascaris), viruses, fungi, drugs and their metabolites (e.g., penicillins and related compounds), whole proteins such as hormones (e.g., insulin) or enzymes (Streptokinase), certain chemicals and metabolites (e.g., acid anhydrides such as trimellitic anhydride, or isocyanates such as toluene diisocyanate), occupational species (e.g., flour (Baker's asthma), castor beans, coffee beans), human proteins in non-human animals, or the like. In some cases, the antigen is derived from a living source (incuding human and non-human sources), and in other cases, the antigen is derived from a non-living source. Antigens may also be derived from cells (such as pancreatic beta cells, myelin sheaths of nerves, synovial fluid and tissue, skin, tumors of any type, any body tissue) or cell extracts, or may be proteins, polypeptides, peptides, polysaccharides, polysaccharide conjugates, peptide and non-peptide mimics of polysaccharides and other molecules, small molecules, lipids, glycolipids, carbohydrates, fats, etc. Small molecules of the invention preferably have a molecular weight below 2,000 daltons, more preferably between 300 and 1,000 daltons (e.g., 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, and 1,000), and most preferably between 400 and 700 (e.g., 400, 450, 500, 600, 650, and 700) daltons. It is preferred that these small molecules are organic molecules.

Specific non-limiting examples of natural animal and plants from which antigens can be derived from using techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art include the following genera: Canine (e.g., Canis familiaris); Dermatophagoides (e.g., Dermatophagoides farinae); Felis (e.g., Felis domesticus); Ambrosia (e.g., Ambrosia artemiisfolia); Lolium (e.g., Lolium perenne or Lolium multiflorum); Cryptomeria (e.g., Cryptomeria japonica); Alternaria (e.g., Alternaria alternata); Alder; Alnus (e.g., Alnus gultinoasa); Betula (e.g., Betula verrucosa); Quercus (e.g., Quercus alba); Olea (e.g., Olea europa); Artemisia (Artemisia vulgaris); Plantago (e.g., Plantago lanceolata); Parietaria (e.g., Parietaria ojficinalis or Parietaria judaica); Blattella (e.g., Blattella germanica); Apis (e.g., Apis multiflorum); Cupressus (e.g., Cupressus sempervirens, Cupressus arizonica, or Cupressus macrocarpa); Juniperus (e.g., Juniperus sabinoides, Junifierus virginiana, Juniperus communis, or Juniperus ashei); Thuya (e.g., Thuya orientalis); Chamaecyparis (e.g., Chamaecyparis obtusa); Periplaneta (e.g., Periplaneta americana); Agropyron (e.g., Agropyron repens); Secale (e.g., Secale cereale); Triticum (e.g., Triticum aestivum); Dactylis (e.g., Dactylis glomerata); Festuca (e.g., Festuca elatior); Poa (e.g., Poa pratensis or Poa compressa); Avena (e.g., Avena sativa); Holcus (e.g., Holcus lanatus); Anthoxanthum (e.g., Anthoxanthum odoratum); Arrhenatherum (e.g., Arrhenatherum elatius); Agrostis (e.g., Agrostis alba); Phleum (e.g., Phleum pratense); Phalaris (e.g., Phalaris arundinacea); Paspalum (e.g., Paspalum notatum); Sorghum (e.g., Sorghum halepensis); and Bromus (e.g., Bromus inermis).

Antigens can also be derived from cell surface molecules or extracts of infectious agents. For instance, infectious bacteria include, but are not limited to, gram negative and gram positive bacteria. Gram positive bacteria include, but are not limited to Pasteurella species, Staphylococci species, and Streptococcus species. Gram negative bacteria include, but are not limited to, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas species, and Salmonella species. Specific examples of infectious bacteria include but are not limited to, Helicobacter pyloris, Borelia burgdorferi, Legionella pneumophilia, Mycobacteria sps (e.g., M. tuberculosis, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. kansaii, M. gordonae, etc.), Staphylococcus aureus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus), Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus), Streptococcus (viridans group), Streptococcus faecalis, Streptococcus bovis, Streptococcus (anaerobic species), Streptococcus pneumoniae, pathogenic Campylobacter sp., Enterococcus sp., Haemophilus influenzae, Bacillus antracis, corynebacterium diphtheriae, corynebacterium sp., Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Clostridium perfringers, Clostridium tetani, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pasturella multocida, Bacteroides sp., Fusobacterium nucleatum, Streptobacillus moniliformis, Treponema pallidium, Treponema pertenue, Leptospira, Rickettsia, and Actinomyces israelli.

Viruses include, but are not limited to, interoviruses (e.g., viruses that the family picornaviridae, such as polio virus, coxsackie virus, echo virus), rotaviruses, adenovirus, hepatitus, etc. Specific examples of viruses that have been found in humans include, but are not limited to, Retroviridae (e.g., human immunodeficiency viruses, such as HIV-1, also referred to as HTLV-III, LAV or HTLV-III/LAV, or HIV-III, and other isolates, such as HIV-LP), Picornaviridae (e.g., polio viruses, hepatitis A virus, enteroviruses, human Coxsackie viruses, rhinoviruses, echoviruses, etc.), Calciviridae (e.g., strains that cause gastroenteritis), Togaviridae (e.g., equine encephalitis viruses, rubella viruses, etc.), Flaviridae (e.g., dengue viruses, encephalitis viruses, yellow fever viruses, etc.), Coronoviridae (e.g., coronaviruses); Rhabdoviradae (e.g., vesicular stomatitis viruses, rabies viruses, etc.); Coronaviridae (e.g., coronaviruses), Rhabdoviridae (e.g., vesicular stomatitis viruses, rabies viruses, etc.), Filoviridae (e.g., ebola viruses), Paramyxoviridae (e.g., parainfluenza viruses, mumps virus, measles virus, respiratory syncytial virus, etc.), Orthomyxoviridae (e.g., influenza viruses), Bungaviridae (e.g., Hantaan viruses, bunga viruses, phleboviruses, Nairo viruses, etc.), Arena viridae (e.g., hemorrhagic fever viruses), Reoviridae (e.g., reoviruses, orbiviurses, rotaviruses, etc.), Birnaviridae, Hepadnaviridae (Hepatitis B virus), Parvovirida (parvoviruses), Papovaviridae (e.g., papilloma viruses, polyoma viruses, etc.), Adenoviridae (adenoviruses), Herpesviridae (e.g., herpes simplex virus (HSV) 1 and 2, varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes virus, etc.), Poxyiridae (e.g., variola viruses, vaccinia viruses, pox viruses), Iridoviridae (e.g., African swine fever virus), as well as other unclassified viruses (e.g., the etiological agents of Spongiform encephalopathies, the agent of delta hepatitis, the agents of non-A, non-B hepatitis (i.e. Hepatitis C), Norwalk and related viruses, astroviruses, etc.).

Examples of fungi include: Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Chlamydia trachomatis, Candida albicans. Other infectious organisms (i.e., protists) include: Plasmodium such as Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium vivax, Toxoplasma gondii, etc.

One of ordinary skill in the art will understand that the carboydrate conjugated antigens of the invention can be used to vaccinate subjects against any known infectious agent.

Examples of infectious agents that cause disease, along with examples of antigens that can be used to vaccinate against these pathogens, include, but are not limited to: human immunodeficiency virus (gp120 protein); malaria (MSP1, AMA1, PfEMP1); tuberculosis (antigen 85 AB, ESAT-6 and heat shock protein 60); influenza (HA, NA); hepatitis B virus (HBeAg). Methods of vaccination to prevent or treat a subject having a pathogen infection are known in the art (e.g., Letvin et al., “Prospects for vaccine protection against REV-1 infection and AIDS,” Annu Rev Immunol. 2002; 20:73-99; Richie et al., “Progress and challenges for malaria vaccines,” Nature. 2002 Feb. 7; 415(6872):694-701; Andersen, “TB vaccines: progress and problems,” Trends Immunol. 2001 March; 22(3):160-8).

In some cases, the antigen may be associated with a cancer, i.e., a cancer antigen. A “cancer antigen” as used herein is a compound, such as a peptide, associated with a tumor or cancer cell surface and which is capable of provoking an immune response, for instance, when expressed on the surface of an antigen presenting cell in the context of an MHC molecule. Cancer antigens, such as those present in cancer vaccines or those used to prepare cancer immunotherapies, can be prepared from crude cancer cell extracts, and/or by partially purifying the antigens, using recombinant technology, or de novo synthesis of known antigens. Cancer antigens can be used in the form of immunogenic portions of a particular antigen, or in some instances, a whole cell or a tumor mass (killed) can be used as the antigen. Such antigens can be isolated or prepared recombinantly or by any means known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

As used herein, the terms “cancer antigen” and “tumor antigen” are generally used interchangeably to refer to antigens which are differentially expressed by cancer cells and can thereby be exploited in order to target cancer cells. Cancer antigens are antigens which can potentially stimulate apparently tumor-specific immune responses. Some of these antigens are also encoded, although not necessarily expressed, by normal cells. These antigens can be characterized as those which are normally silent (i.e., not expressed) in normal cells, those that are expressed only at certain stages of differentiation and those that are temporally expressed such as embryonic and fetal antigens. Other cancer antigens are encoded by mutant cellular genes, such as oncogenes (e.g., activated ras oncogene), suppressor genes (e.g., mutant p53), fusion proteins resulting from internal deletions or chromosomal translocations. Still other cancer antigens can be encoded by viral genes such as those carried on RNA and DNA tumor viruses.

Specific examples of tumor antigens include, but are not limited to, proteins such as Ig-idiotype of B cell lymphoma, mutant cyclin-dependent kinase 4 of melanoma, Pmel-17 (gp 100) of melanoma, MART-1 (Melan-A, MAGE-1) of melanoma, p15 protein of melanoma, tyrosinase of melanoma, MAGE 1, 2 and 3 of melanoma, GAGE family of melanoma, thyroid medullary, small cell lung cancer, colon and/or bronchial squamous cell cancer, BAGE of bladder, melanoma, breast, and squamous-cell carcinoma, gp75 of melanoma, oncofetal antigen of melanoma, etc. In some cases, the tumor antigen may include carbohydrates and/or lipids, such as mucin of breast, pancreas, and ovarian cancer, GM2 and GD2 gangliosides of melanoma.

Other non-limiting examples of tumor antigens include oncogenes such as mutant p53 of carcinoma, mutant ras of colon cancer and HER21neu proto-onco-gene of breast carcinoma, viral products such as human papilloma virus proteins of squamous cell cancers of cervix and esophagus, etc. In one set of embodiments the antigen (shown in parenthesis) may be associated or derived from the following tumors: acute lymphoblastic leukemia (e.g., etv6, aml 1, cyclophilin b, etc.), B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma (Ig idiotype), glioma (e.g., E-cadherin, alpha-catenin, beta-catenin, gamma-catenin, pl20ctn, etc.), bladder cancer (e.g., p21ras), billiary cancer (e.g., p21ras), breast cancer (e.g., the MUC family, HER2/neu, CEA, c-erbB-2, etc.), Burkitt's lymphoma (EBV antigens), cervical carcinoma (e.g., p53, p21ras, human papilloma virus antigens E6 and E7, etc.), CML (bcr-abl fusion product), colon carcinoma (e.g., p21ras, HER2/neu, c-erbB-2, the MUC family, etc.), colorectal cancer (e.g., colorectal associated antigen (CRC)-C017-1A/GA733, APC, CEA, muc-1, etc.), choriocarcinoma (e.g., CEA), epithelial cell-cancer (e.g., cyclophilin b), gastric cancer (e.g., HER2/neu, c-erbB-2, ga733 glycoprotein, etc.), hepatocellular cancer (e.g., alpha-fetoprotein, etc.), Hodgkins lymphoma (e.g., Imp-1, EBNA-1, etc.), liver cancer (alpha-fetoprotein), lung cancer (e.g., CEA, MAGE-3, NY-ESO-1, her-2/neu, muc-1), lymphoid cell-derived leukemia (e.g., cyclophilin b), myeloma (e.g., the MUC family, p21ras, etc.), non-small cell lung carcinoma (e.g., HER2/neu, c-erbB-2, etc.), nasopharyngeal cancer (e.g., imp-1, EBNA-1, etc.), ovarian cancer cancer (e.g., the MUC family (e.g., muc-1), HER2/neu, c-erbB-2, etc.), prostate cancer (e.g., PAA, prostate specific antigen or PSA and its immunogenic epitopes such as PSA-1, PSA-2, and PSA-3, or PSMA, HER2/neu, c-erbB-2, etc.), pancreatic cancer (e.g., p21ras, the MUC family (e.g., muc-1), HER2/neu, c-erbB-2, ga733 glycoprotein, etc.), renal (e.g., HER2/neu, c-erbB-2, etc.), testicular cancer (e.g., NY-ESO-1), thyroid cancer (thyroglobulin), T cell leukemia (e.g., HTLV-1 epitopes), melanoma (e.g., Melan-A/MART-1, cdc27, MAGE-3, p21ras, gp100_(Pme1117)), etc. See, e.g., Fong L, Engleman E G., “Dendritic cells in cancer immunotherapy,” Annu Rev Immunol. 2000; 18:245-73.

Antigen-Carbohydrate Conjugates

As discussed above, various antigen-carbohydrate conjugates of the invention are able to bind lectins expressable on the surfaces of dendritic cells or other antigen presenting cells. Lectins are proteins or glycoproteins that have the ability to bind carbohydrates, including the antigen-carbohydrate conjugates further described herein. Lectins can be expressed by dendritic cells and other cells of the body. In some cases, the lectins are able to selectively bind or otherwise recognize carbohydrates, relative to other naturally-occurring species (e.g., proteins, hormones, etc.), and some lectins may selectively bind or recognize one class or species of carbohydrates, relative to other carbohydrates (e.g., the lectin may selectively bind or recognize mannose relative to glucose or fructose, etc.). In some cases, other species, may assist in the binding of, or recognition of, the carbohydrates to lectins, for example, small molecules or ions such as calcium (Ca²⁺); an example is calcium-dependent carbohydrate binding proteins, or a “C-type lectin.”

Certain lectins are selectively expressed by dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells in vivo, ex vivo, and/or in vitro, relative to their expression in other cells, e.g., other cells of the immune system, such as T cells or B cells. Lectins that may be expressed by dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells include, for example, but are not limited to, C-lectins such as MMR (“macrophage mannose receptor”) (CD206) (SEQ ID NO: 1), DEC-205 (CD205) (SEQ ID NO: 2), Dectin 1 (SEQ ID NO: 3), Dectin 2 (SEQ ID NO: 4), Langerin (CD 207) (SEQ ID NO: 5), DC-SIGN (“dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3-grabbing non-integrin, ICAM being an abbreviation for “intercellular adhesion molecule”) (CD 209) (SEQ ID NO: 6), BDCA-2 (“blood dendritic cell antigen 2 protein”) (SEQ ID NO: 7), DCIR (“dendritic cell immunoreceptor”) (SEQ ID NO: 8), CLEC-1, ASGPR (“asialoglycoprotein receptor”) (SEQ ID NO: 9), or CIRE (SEQ ID NO: 13). DC-SIGN is a calcium-dependent, type II C-type lectin, that is DC-specific ligand for ICAM-3 expressed on naïve T cells. DC-SIGN may promote a transient clustering between a DC and T cell, thus allowing the DC to screen numerous T cells for an appropriately matched T cell receptor. Dectin-1, a DC-specific type II C-type lectin that contains a cytoplasmic immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM), may inhibit or promote T cell proliferation.

In some cases, the lectin is expressed in the dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells, but are not substantially expressed in other cells, i.e., the lectin may be expressed in other cells (i.e., non-dendritic or non-antigen-presenting cells), but in quantities such that the binding of carbohydrates to the lectin in those cells has no measurable effect on the behavior of those cells. In certain instances, the lectin is not detectable in other, non-dendritic or non-antigen-presenting cells. Examples of such lectins include DC-SIGN, CLEC-1, Dectin-1, Dectin-2, BDCA-2, or CIRE.

The lectin expressed by the dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells, in some embodiments, may be a lectin that comprises one or more carbohydrate-recognition domain (“CRD”), a domain having about 115 to 130 amino acid residues, including 14 invariant and 18 highly conserved amino acid residues. The CRD is shown in FIG. 9A and SEQ ID NO: 10; comparative CRD's from other species are shown as SEQ ID NO:11 and SEQ ID NO: 12. The domain may be able to bind one or more carbohydrates, including the antigen-carbohydrate conjugates further described herein. Examples of lectins that include a CRD include those described above. The lectin comprising a CRD may be a Type I membrane lectin (oriented such that the N terminus is extracellular) or a Type II membrane lectin (oriented such that the N terminus is cytoplasmic).

The carbohydrate may be any carbohydrate that can bind the lectin that is expressable on the surface of a dendritic cell and/or other antigen-presenting cell. In some cases, the carbohydrate may be derived from the Lewis blood group antigens, for example, to preferentially target DC-SIGN. As used herein, a “carbohydrate” (or, equivalently, a “sugar”) is a saccharide (including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides) and/or a molecule (including oligomers or polymers) derived from one or more monosaccharides, e.g., by reduction of carbonyl groups, by oxidation of one or more terminal groups to carboxylic acids, by replacement of one or more hydroxy group(s) by a hydrogen atom, an amino group, a thiol group or similar heteroatomic groups, etc. The term “carbohydrate” also includes derivatives of these compounds. Non-limiting examples of carbohydrates include allose (“All”), altrose (“Alt”), arabinose (“Ara”), erythrose, erythrulose, fructose (“Fru”), fucosamine (“FucN”), fucose (“Fuc”), galactosamine (“GalN”), galactose (“Gal”), glucosamine (“GlcN”), glucosaminitol (“GlcN-ol”), glucose (“Glc”), glyceraldehyde, 2,3-dihydroxypropanal, glycerol (“Gro”), propane-1,2,3-triol, glycerone (“1,3-dihydroxyacetone”), 1,3-dihydroxypropanone, gulose (“Gul”), idose (“Ido”), lyxose (“Lyx”), mannosamine (“ManN”), mannose (“Man”), psicose (“Psi”), quinovose (“Qui”), quinovosamine, rhamnitol (“Rha-ol”), rhamnosamine (“RhaN”), rhamnose (“Rha”), ribose (“Rib”), ribulose (“Rut”), sorbose (“Sor”), tagatose (“Tag”), talose (“Tal”), tartaric acid, erythraric/threaric acid, threose, xylose (“Xyl”), or xylulose (“Xul”). In some cases, the carbohydrate may be a pentose (i.e., having 5 carbons) or a hexose (i.e., having 6 carbons); and in certain instances, the carbohydrate may be an oligosaccharide comprising pentose and/or hexose units, e.g., including those described above. A “monosaccharide,” is a carbohydrate or carbohydrate derivative that includes one saccharide unit, e.g., as described above. Similarly, a “disaccharide,” a “trisaccharide,” a “tetrasaccharide,” a “pentasaccharide,” etc. respectively has 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. saccharide units. An “oligosaccharide,” as used herein, has 1-20 saccharide units, and the saccharide units may be joined in any suitable configuration, for example, through alpha or beta linkages, using any suitable hydroxy moiety, etc. The oligosaccharide may be linear, or branched in certain instances. In some cases, the carbohydrate may be mulitmeric, i.e., comprising more than one saccharide chain.

As used herein, the term “bind,” with respect to a receptor and a ligand (e.g., a carbohydrate, a carbohydrate derivative, a carbohydrate conjugate, etc.), is given its ordinary meaning as used in the art, i.e., a recognition between the receptor and the ligand. Such binding interactions may involve ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals bonds, metal ligand bonds, dative bonds, coordinated bonds, hydrophobic interactions, or the like. Recognition between the receptor and the ligand may be quantified using a binding affinity constant (K_(d)). Thus, in some embodiments of the invention, a carbohydrate may bind a lectin with a binding affinity of at least about 100 pM, and in some cases, the binding affinity may be at least about 1 nM, at least about 10 nM, at least about 100 nM, or at least about 1 micromolar or more. Those of ordinary skill in the art will be able to determine whether a given carbohydrate is able to bind a given lectin, and at what binding affinity, using no more than routine experiments. Examples of suitable techniques for quantitatively determining binding affinity constants, for example, equilibrium dialysis, fluorescence quenching, surface plasmon resonance, etc. In some, but not all, embodiments of the invention, the carbohydrate specifically binds the lectin, i.e., the carbohydrate binds the lectin with a binding affinity that is greater than for other known lectins. The carbohydrate may also be chosen, in certain cases, so as to be able to bind and/or specifically bind to a specific region of the lectin, such as a CRD within the lectin.

In some cases, the carbohydrate may be determined by screening a library of carbohydrates to identify those carbohydrates able to bind the lectin. Carbohydrates within the library are exposed to a lectin that is expressed on dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells, and the binding affinity between carbohydrates within the library and the lectin is determined, e.g., as described above. A non-limiting example of a screening technique for carbohydrates is D. M. Ratner, et al., “Probing Protein-Carbohydrate Interactions with Microarrays of Synthetic Oligosaccharides,” ChemBioChem, 5:379-383, 2004, incorporated herein by reference. Those carbohydrates having suitable binding affinities may then be used in conjunction with the methods of the invention. For example, the carbohydrate may be conjugated to a suitable antigen, e.g., for administration to a subject. By “conjugate” is meant a molecular compound formed by the joining of at least two distinct agents (e.g., a carbohydrate and an antigen) or the process of forming such a molecule. Accordingly, an “antigen-carbohydrate conjugate” is formed from one, two, three or more oligosaccharides that are bound to an antigen or antigen-mimetic.

One set of embodiments of the invention is directed to carbohydrates containing one or more mannose residues, i.e., a “mannan.” For example, the carbohydrate may have at least 2 mannose residues, at least 3 mannose residues, at least 4 mannose residues, at least 5 mannose residues, etc., optionally in combination with other, non-mannose residues, including those described above. In some cases, a majority of the carbohydrate residues are mannose residues. The mannose residues may be chosen so as to be able to bind and/or specifically bind a lectin expressed on dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells, e.g. DC-SIGN. Non-limiting examples of mannose-containing carbohydrates are shown by structures 1-6 in FIG. 1. In the figure, antigens may be conjugated to, for example, the thiol (—SH) or acetamide (—NHAc) moieties on the end of the carbohydrate molecule. Another example of a mannose-containing carbohydrate conjugated to an antigen is shown in FIG. 10 (“Ag” represents the antigen).

Any technique can be used to conjugate the carbohydrate and the antigen, for instance, covalently, for example, using solid phase synthesis. Those of ordinary skill in the art will know of suitable techniques for conjugating the carbohydrate to an antigen, e.g., as described above. Examples of suitable techniques are described in the Examples, under the header “Carbohydrate Modification of Ovalbumin.” An exemplary approach is also illustrated in FIG. 10, which provides a conjugation scheme applicable to thiol-modified carbohydrates. Another example of a suitable technique can be seen in D. M. Ratner, et al., “A Linear Synthesis of Branched High-Mannose Oligosaccharides from the HIV-1 Viral Surface Envelope Glycoprotein gp120,” Eur. J. Org. Chem., 2002(5):826-833, 2002, incorporated herein by reference, including any publicly-available supporting information. The conjugation between the carbohydrate and the antigen may be direct or indirect, e.g., a linking agent or a material may separate the carbohydrate and the antigen. For example, the linking agent or material may be a

peptide, an alkyl group or an alkyl derivative, poly(ethylene glycol), a particle, a carrier, or the like.

In some embodiments of the invention, the composition may further comprise homologs, analogs, derivatives, enantiomers and/or functionally equivalent compositions thereof of the compositions of the invention. An “analog” is a compound which may differ in structure from a reference compound, but which fulfills a similar function. Such homologs, analogs, derivatives, enantiomers and functionally equivalent compositions thereof of the compositions may also be used in any of the assays described above. It will be understood that the skilled artisan will be able to manipulate the conditions in a manner to prepare such homologs, analogs, derivatives, enantiomers and functionally equivalent compositions. Homologs, analogs, derivatives, enantiomers and/or functionally equivalent compositions which are about as effective or more effective than the parent compound are also intended for use in the methods of the invention. Synthesis of such compositions may be accomplished through typical chemical modification methods such as those routinely practiced in the art.

Certain embodiments of the present invention involve a method comprising providing any of the compositions described herein, and performing a combinatorial synthesis on the composition, preferably to obtain homologs, analogs, derivatives, enantiomers and functionally equivalent compositions thereof of the composition. An assay may be performed with the homolog, analog, derivative, enantiomer or functionally equivalent composition to determine its effectiveness. The combinatorial synthesis can involve subjecting a plurality of the compositions described herein to combinatorial synthesis, using techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

In some cases, the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate may include a hapten. A “hapten” is a substance, typically having a low molecular weight (e.g., a small organic molecule or a peptide), which, although not capable of provoking a specific immune response when isolated by itself, is able to enhance the immune response to a chemical species (i.e., a “carrier”) to which it is attached and/or is a component of, e.g., an epitope of the antigen. The immune response may include antibodies directed against the hapten. In one set of embodiments, a portion of an antigen (e.g., an epitope) is the hapten. In another set of embodiments, the hapten is a molecule that is bound to either or both the antigen and the carbohydrate. For instance, the hapten may be a linking agent between the antigen and the carbohydrate. Non-limiting examples of haptens include certain drugs, simple sugars, amino acids, small peptides, phospholipids, triglycerides, etc.

Immune responses can also be induced or augmented by the co-administration or co-linear expression of cytokines or B7-1/2 co-stimulatory molecules in combination with the compositions of the invention. The cytokines can be administered directly with the compositions, and/or may be administered in the form of a nucleic acid vector that encodes the cytokine, such that the cytokine can be expressed in vivo. In one embodiment, the cytokine is administered in the form of a plasmid expression vector. The term “cytokine” is used as a generic name for a diverse group of soluble proteins and peptides which act as humoral regulators at nano- to picomolar concentrations and which, either under normal or pathological conditions, modulate the functional activities of individual cells and tissues. By “modulate” is meant to alter (i.e., increase or decrease). These proteins also mediate interactions between cells directly and regulate processes taking place in the extracellular environment. Non-limiting examples of cytokines include, but are not limited to IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18 granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), granulocyte colony stimulating factor (GCSF), interferon-gamma, interferon-alpha, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, tumor necrosis factor-beta, TGF-gamma, FLT-3 ligand, CD40 ligand, etc.

Adjuvants

In certain embodiments of the invention, the antigen-carbohydrate conjugate may be administered in conjunction with an adjuvant. An “adjuvant,” as used herein, is any molecule or compound that can enhance an immune response or function as a depot for an antigen. Examples of adjuvants include adjuvants that create a depot effect, immune stimulating adjuvants, adjuvants that create a depot effect and stimulate the immune system, and mucosal adjuvants.

An “adjuvant that creates a depot effect” as used herein is an adjuvant that causes an antigen to be slowly released in the body, thus prolonging the exposure of immune cells to the antigen. This class of adjuvants includes but is not limited to alum (e.g., aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate), or emulsion-based formulations including mineral oil, non-mineral oil, water-in-oil or oil-in-water-in oil emulsion, oil-in-water emulsions, such as Seppic ISA series of Montamide adjuvants (e.g., Montamide ISA 720, AirLiquide, Paris, France), MF-59 (a squalene-in-water emulsion stabilized with Span 85 and Tween 80, Chiron Corporation), and PROVAX (an oil-in-water emulsion containing a stabilizing detergent and a micelle-forming agent, IDEC, Pharmaceuticals Corporation).

An “immune stimulating adjuvant” is an adjuvant that causes activation of a cell of the immune system. It may, for instance, cause an immune cell to produce and secrete cytokines. This class of adjuvants includes but is not limited to saponins purified from the bark of the Q. saponaria tree, such as QS21 (a glycolipid that elutes in the 21 t peak with HPLC fractionation, Aquila Biopharmaceuticals, Inc.), poly(di(carboxylatophenoxy)phosphazene) (PCPP polymer, Virus Research Institute), derivatives of lipopolysaccharides such as monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL, Ribi ImmunoChem Research, Inc.), muramyl dipeptide (MDP, Ribi) and threonyl-muramyl dipeptide (t-MDP, Ribi), OM-174 (a glucosamine disaccharide related to lipid A, OM Pharma SA), and Leishmania elongation factor (a purified Leishmania protein, Corixa Corporation).

“Adjuvants that create a depot effect and stimulate the immune system” are those compounds which have both of the above-identified functions. This class of adjuvants includes but is not limited to ISCOMS (immunostimulating complexes which contain mixed saponins, lipids and form virus-sized particles with pores that can hold antigen, CSL), SB-AS2 (SmithKline Beecham adjuvant system #2, which is an oil-in-water emulsion containing MPL and QS21: SmithKline Beecham Biologicals), SB-AS4 (SmithKline Beecham adjuvant system #4 which contains alum and MPL), non-ionic block copolymers that form micelles such as CRL 1005 (these contain a linear chain of hydrophobic polyoxpropylene flanked by chains of polyoxyethylene, Vaxcel, Inc.), and Syntex Adjuvant Formulation (SAF, an oil-in-water emulsion containing Tween 80 and a nonionic block copolymer, Syntex Chemicals, Inc.).

A “mucosal adjuvant” as used herein is an adjuvant that is capable of inducing a mucosal immune response in a subject when administered to a mucosal surface in conjunction with an antigen. Mucosal adjuvants include but are not limited to bacterial toxins, for example, cholera toxin and cholera toxin derivatives (e.g., CT B subunit, CTD53, CTK97, CTK104, CTD53/K₆₃, CTH54, CTN₁₀₇, CTE114, CTE112K, CTS61F, CTS106, CTK63, etc.), Zonula occludens toxin, Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin, labile toxin and labile toxin derivatives (e.g., LT B subunit (LTB), LT7K, LT61F, LT112K, LT118E, LT146E, LT192G, LTK63, LTR72, etc.), Pertussis toxin and Pertussis toxin derivatives (e.g., PT-9K/129G), Lipid A derivatives (e.g., monophosphoryl lipid A, MPL), muramyl dipeptide derivatives, bacterial outer membrane proteins (e.g., outer surface protein A (OspA) lipoprotein of Borrelia burgdorferi, outer membrane protein of Neisseria meningitidis, etc.), oil-in-water emulsions (e.g., MF59), aluminum salts, saponins, etc.

Pharmaceutical Formulations and Methods of Administration

Another aspect of the invention provides a method of administering any of the above-described compositions to a subject. When administered, the compositions of the invention may be applied in a therapeutically effective, pharmaceutically acceptable amount as a pharmaceutically acceptable formulation. As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” is given its ordinary meaning. Pharmaceutically acceptable compositions are generally compatible with other materials of the formulation and are not generally deleterious to the subject.

Any of the compositions of the present invention may be administered to the subject in a therapeutically effective dose. A “therapeutically effective” or an “effective” amount or dose, as used herein means that amount necessary to induce immunity or tolerance within the subject, and/or to enable the subject to more effectively resist a disease (e.g., against foreign pathogens, cancer, an autoimmune disease, etc.). When administered to a subject, effective amounts will depend on the particular condition being treated and the desired outcome. A therapeutically effective dose may be determined by those of ordinary skill in the art, for instance, employing factors such as those further described below and using no more than routine experimentation.

In some embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount can be initially determined from cell culture assays. For instance the effective amount of a composition of the invention useful for inducing dendritic cell response can be assessed using the in vitro assays with respect to a stimulation index. The stimulation index can be used to determine an effective amount of a particular composition of the invention for a particular subject, and the dosage can be adjusted upwards or downwards to achieve desired levels in the subject. Therapeutically effective amounts can also be determined from animal models. The applied dose can be adjusted based on the relative bioavailability and potency of the administered composition. Adjusting the dose to achieve maximal efficacy based on the methods described above and other methods are within the capabilities of those of ordinary skill in the art. These doses can be adjusted using no more than routine experimentation.

In administering the compositions of the invention to a subject, dosing amounts, dosing schedules, routes of administration, and the like may be selected so as to affect known activities of these compositions. Dosages may be estimated based on the results of experimental models, optionally in combination with the results of assays of compositions of the present invention. Dosage may be adjusted appropriately to achieve desired compositional levels, local or systemic, depending upon the mode of administration. The doses may be given in one or several administrations per day. In the event that the response of a particular subject is insufficient at such doses, even higher doses (or effectively higher doses by a different, more localized delivery route) may be employed to the extent that subject tolerance permits. Multiple doses per day are also contemplated in some cases to achieve appropriate systemic levels of the composition within the subject or within the active site of the subject.

The dose of the composition to the subject may be such that a therapeutically effective amount of the composition reaches the active site of the composition within the subject, i.e., dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells within the body. The dosage may be given in some cases at the maximum amount while avoiding or minimizing any potentially detrimental side effects within the subject. The dosage of the composition that is actually administered is dependent upon factors such as the final concentration desired at the active site, the method of administration to the subject, the efficacy of the composition, the longevity of the composition within the subject, the timing of administration, the effect of concurrent treatments (e.g., as in a cocktail), etc. The dose delivered may also depend on conditions associated with the subject, and can vary from subject to subject in some cases. For example, the age, sex, weight, size, environment, physical conditions, or current state of health of the subject may also influence the dose required and/or the concentration of the composition at the active site. Variations in dosing may occur between different individuals or even within the same individual on different days. It may be preferred that a maximum dose be used, that is, the highest safe dose according to sound medical judgment. Preferably, the dosage form is such that it does not substantially deleteriously affect the subject. In certain embodiments, the composition may be administered to a subject as a preventive measure. In some embodiments, the inventive composition may be administered to a subject based on demographics or epidemiological studies, or to a subject in a particular field or career.

Administration of a composition of the invention may be accomplished by any medically acceptable method which allows the composition to reach its target, i.e., dendritic cells and/or other antigen-presenting cells within the body. The particular mode selected will depend of course, upon factors such as those previously described, for example, the particular composition, the severity of the state of the subject being treated, the dosage required for therapeutic efficacy, etc. As used herein, a “medically acceptable” mode of treatment is a mode able to produce effective levels of the composition within the subject without causing clinically unacceptable adverse effects.

Any medically acceptable method may be used to administer the composition to the subject. The administration may be localized (i.e., to a particular region, physiological system, tissue, organ, or cell type) or systemic, depending on the condition to be treated. For example, the composition may be administered orally, vaginally, rectally, buccally, pulmonary, topically, nasally, transdermally, sublingually, through parenteral injection or implantation, via surgical administration, or any other method of administration where access to the target by the composition of the invention is achieved. Examples of parenteral modalities that can be used with the invention include intravenous, intradermal, subcutaneous, intracavity, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, epidural, or intrathecal. Examples of implantation modalities include any implantable or injectable drug delivery system. Oral administration may be preferred in some embodiments because of the convenience to the subject as well as the dosing schedule. Compositions suitable for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as hard or soft capsules, pills, cachettes, tablets, troches, or lozenges, each containing a predetermined amount of the active compound. Other oral compositions suitable for use with the invention include solutions or suspensions in aqueous or non-aqueous liquids such as a syrup, an elixir, or an emulsion. In another set of embodiments, the composition may be used to fortify a food or a beverage.

In certain embodiments of the invention, the administration of the composition of the invention may be designed so as to result in sequential exposures to the composition over a certain time period, for example, hours, days, weeks, months or years. This may be accomplished, for example, by repeated administrations of a composition of the invention by one of the methods described above, or by a sustained or controlled release delivery system in which the composition is delivered over a prolonged period without repeated administrations. Administration of the composition using such a delivery system may be, for example, by oral dosage forms, bolus injections, transdermal patches or subcutaneous implants. Maintaining a substantially constant concentration of the composition may be preferred in some cases.

The composition may also be administered on a routine schedule, but alternatively, may be administered as symptoms arise. A “routine schedule” as used herein, refers to a predetermined designated period of time. The routine schedule may encompass periods of time which are identical or which differ in length, as long as the schedule is predetermined. For instance, the routine schedule may involve administration of the composition on a daily basis, every two days, every three days, every four days, every five days, every six days, a weekly basis, a bi-weekly basis, a monthly basis, a bimonthly basis or any set number of days or weeks there-between, every two months, three months, four months, five months, six months, seven months, eight months, nine months, ten months, eleven months, twelve months, etc. Alternatively, the predetermined routine schedule may involve administration of the composition on a daily basis for the first week, followed by a monthly basis for several months, and then every three months after that. Any particular combination would be covered by the routine schedule as long as it is determined ahead of time that the appropriate schedule involves administration on a certain day.

In some cases, the composition is administered to the subject in anticipation of an allergic event in order to prevent an allergic event. The allergic event may be, but need not be limited to, an asthma attack, seasonal allergic rhinitis (e.g., hay-fever, pollen, ragweed hypersensitivity) or perennial allergic rhinitis (e.g., hypersensitivity to allergens such as those described herein). In some instances, the composition is administered substantially prior to an allergic event. As used herein, “substantially prior” means at least six months, at least five months, at least four months, at least three months, at least two months, at least one month, at least three weeks, at least two weeks, at least one week, at least 5 days, or at least 2 days prior to the allergic event.

Similarly, the composition may be administered immediately prior to an allergic event (e.g., within 48 hours, within 24 hours, within 12 hours, within 6 hours, within 4 hours, within 3 hours, within 2 hours, within 1 hour, within 30 minutes or within 10 minutes of an allergic event), substantially simultaneously with the allergic event (e.g., during the time the subject is in contact with the allergen or is experiencing the allergy symptoms) or following the allergic event. In order to desensitize a subject to a particular allergen, the conjugate containing that antigen or allergen may be administered in very small doses over a period of time, consistent with traditional desensitization therapy.

Other delivery systems suitable for use with the present invention include time-release, delayed release, sustained release, or controlled release delivery systems. Such systems may avoid repeated administrations of the composition in many cases, increasing convenience to the subject. Many types of release delivery systems are available and known to those of ordinary skill in the art. They include, for example, polymer-based systems such as polylactic and/or polyglycolic acids, polyanhydrides, polycaprolactones and/or combinations of these; nonpolymer systems that are lipid-based including sterols such as cholesterol, cholesterol esters, and fatty acids or neutral fats such as mono-, di- and triglycerides; hydrogel release systems; liposome-based systems; phospholipid based-systems; silastic systems; peptide based systems; wax coatings; compressed tablets using conventional binders and excipients; or partially fused implants. Specific examples include, but are not limited to, erosional systems in which the composition is contained in a form within a matrix (for example, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,452,775, 4,675,189, and 5,736,152), or diffusional systems in which an active component controls the release rate (for example, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,854,480, 5,133,974 and 5,407,686). The formulation may be as, for example, microspheres, hydrogels, polymeric reservoirs, cholesterol matrices, or polymeric systems. In some embodiments, the system may allow sustained or controlled release of the composition to occur, for example, through control of the diffusion or erosion/degradation rate of the formulation containing the composition. In addition, a pump-based hardware delivery system may be used to deliver one or more embodiments of the invention.

Use of a long-term release implant may be particularly suitable in some embodiments of the invention. “Long-term release,” as used herein, means that the implant containing the composition is constructed and arranged to deliver therapeutically effective levels of the composition for at least 30 or 45 days, and preferably at least 60 or 90 days, or even longer in some cases. Long-term release implants are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, and include some of the release systems described above.

Combination Therapies

Administration of the composition can be alone, or in combination with other therapeutic agents and/or compositions, for example, used to treat allergies, infectious disease, cancers, etc.

For instance, examples of therapeutic agents and drugs that can be used in combination with one or more compositions of the invention for the treatment of allergy include, but are not limited to, one or more of: PDE-4 inhibitors, bronchodilator (e.g., salmeterol, salbutamol, albuterol, terbutaline, D2522/formoterol, fenoterol, bitolterol, pirbuerol, methylxanthines such as theophylline, orciprenaline, etc.), beta-2 agonists (e.g., albuterol, bitolterol, pirbuterol, terbutaline, etc.), K⁺ channel openers, VLA-4 antagonists, neurokin antagonists, TXA2 synthesis inhibitors, xanthanines, arachidonic acid antagonists, 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors, thromboxin A2 receptor antagonists, thromboxane A2 antagonists, inhibitors of 5-lipox activation proteins, protease inhibitors, chromolyn sodium, or medocromil. Other examples of potentially useful allergy medicaments include, but are not limited to, loratidine, cetirizine, buclizine, ceterizine analogues, fexofenadine, terfenadine, desloratadine, norastemizole, epinastine, ebastine, ebastine, astemizole, levocabastine, azelastine, tranilast, terfenadine, mizolastine, betatastine, CS 560, HSR 609, prostaglandins, steroids (e.g., beclomethasone, fluticasone, tramcinolone, budesonide, budesonide, etc.), corticosteroids (e.g., beclomethasome dipropionate, budesonide, flunisolide, fluticaosone, propionate, triamcinoone acetonide, dexamethasone, methylprednisolone, prednisolone, prednisone etc.), immunomodulators (e.g., anti-inflammatory agents, leukotriene antagonists such as zafirlukast or zileuton, IL-4 muteins, soluble IL-4 receptors, immunosuppressants such as tolerizing peptide vaccine, anti-IL-4 antibodies, IL-4 antagonists, anti-IL-5 antibodies, soluble IL-13 receptor-Fc fusion proteins, anti-IL-9 antibodies, CCR3 antagonists, CCR5 antagonists, VLA-4 inhibitors, etc), downregulators of IgE (e.g., peptides or other molecules with the ability to bind to the IgE receptor, monoclonal antibodies against IgE, certain polypeptides capable of blocking the binding of the IgE antibody, etc.). Still other potentially useful immunomodulators include neuropeptides that have been shown to have immunomodulating properties, for example, substance P.

The term “cancer,” as used herein, may include, but is not limited to: biliary tract cancer; bladder cancer; brain cancer including glioblastomas and medulloblastomas; breast cancer; cervical cancer; choriocarcinoma; colon cancer; endometrial cancer; esophageal cancer; gastric cancer; hematological neoplasms including acute lymphocytic and myelogenous leukemia; multiple myeloma; AIDS-associated leukemias and adult T-cell leukemia lymphoma; intraepithelial neoplasms including Bowen's disease and Paget's disease; liver cancer; lung cancer; lymphomas including Hodgkin's disease and lymphocytic lymphomas; neuroblastomas; oral cancer including squamous cell carcinoma; ovarian cancer including those arising from epithelial cells, stromal cells, germ cells and mesenchymal cells; pancreatic cancer; prostate cancer; rectal cancer; sarcomas including leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, liposarcoma, fibrosarcoma, and osteosarcoma; skin cancer including melanoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, basocellular cancer, and squamous cell cancer; testicular cancer including germinal tumors such as seminoma, non-seminoma, teratomas, choriocarcinomas; stomal tumors and germ cell tumors; thyroid cancer including thyroid adenocarcinoma and medullar carcinoma; and renal cancer including adenocarcinoma and Wilms' tumor. Commonly encountered cancers include breast, prostate, lung, ovarian, colorectal, and brain cancer. In general, an effective amount of the compositions of the invention for treating cancer will be that amount necessary to inhibit mammalian cancer cell proliferation in situ. Those of ordinary skill in the art are well-schooled in the art of evaluating effective amounts of anti-cancer agents.

The term “cancer treatment” as used herein, may include, but is not limited to: chemotherapy, radiotherapy, adjuvant therapy, or any combination of these methods. Aspects of cancer treatment that may vary include, but are not limited to, dosages, timing of administration or duration or therapy; and such aspects may or may not be combined with other treatments, which may also vary in dosage, timing, and/or duration. Another cancer treatment is surgery, which may be utilized either alone or in combination with any of the previously-described treatment methods. One of ordinary skill in the medical arts can determine an appropriate cancer treatment for a subject.

Non-limiting examples of anti-cancer agents and drugs that can be used in combination with one or more compositions of the invention for the treatment of cancer include, but are not limited to, one or more of: 20-epi-1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3, 4-ipomeanol, 5-ethynyluracil, 9-dihydrotaxol, abiraterone, acivicin, aclarubicin, acodazole hydrochloride, acronine, acylfulvene, adecypenol, adozelesin, aldesleukin, all-tk antagonists, altretamine, ambamustine, ambomycin, ametantrone acetate, amidox, amifostine, aminoglutethimide, aminolevulinic acid, amrubicin, amsacrine, anagrelide, anastrozole, andrographolide, angiogenesis inhibitors, antagonist D, antagonist G, antarelix, anthramycin, anti-dorsalizing morphogenetic protein-1, antiestrogen, antineoplaston, antisense oligonucleotides, aphidicolin glycinate, apoptosis gene modulators, apoptosis regulators, apurinic acid, ARA-CDP-DL-PTBA, arginine deaminase, asparaginase, asperlin, asulacrine, atamestane, atrimustine, axinastatin 1, axinastatin 2, axinastatin 3, azacitidine, azasetron, azatoxin, a7atyrosine, azetepa, azotomycin, baccatin III derivatives, balanol, batimastat, benzochlorins, benzodepa, benzoylstaurosporine, beta lactam derivatives, beta-alethine, betaclamycin B, betulinic acid, BFGF inhibitor, bicalutamide, bisantrene, bisantrene hydrochloride, bisaziridinylspermine, bisnafide, bisnafide dimesylate, bistratene A, bizelesin, bleomycin, bleomycin sulfate, BRC/ABL antagonists, breflate, brequinar sodium, bropirimine, budotitane, busulfan, buthionine sulfoximine, cactinomycin, calcipotriol, calphostin C, calusterone, camptothecin derivatives, canarypox IL-2, capecitabine, caracemide, carbetimer, carboplatin, carboxamide-amino-triazole, carboxyamidotriazole, carest M3, carmustine, cam 700, cartilage derived inhibitor, carubicin hydrochloride, carzelesin, casein kinase inhibitors, castanospermine, cecropin B, cedefingol, cetrorelix, chlorambucil, chlorins, chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide, cicaprost, cirolemycin, cisplatin, cis-porphyrin, cladribine, clomifene analogs, clotrimazole, collistnycin A, collismycin B, combretastatin A4, combretastatin analog, conagenin, crambescidin 816, crisnatol, crisnatol mesylate, cryptophycin 8, cryptophycin A derivatives, curacin A, cyclopentanthraquinones, cyclophosphamide, cycloplatam, cypemycin, cytarabine, cytarabine ocfosfate, cytolytic factor, cytostatin, dacarbazine, dacliximab, dactinomycin, daunorubicin hydrochloride, decitabine, dehydrodidemnin B, deslorelin, dexifosfamide, dexormaplatin, dexrazoxane, dexverapamil, dezaguanine, dezaguanine mesylate, diaziquone, didemnin B, didox, diethylnorspermine, dihydro-5-azacytidine, dioxamycin, diphenyl spiromustine, docetaxel, docosanol, dolasetron, doxifluridine, doxorubicin, doxorubicin hydrochloride, droloxifene, droloxifene citrate, dromostanolone propionate, dronabinol, duazomycin, duocarmycin SA, ebselen, ecomustine, edatrexate, edelfosine, edrecolomab, eflomithine, eflomithine hydrochloride, elemene, elsamitrucin, emitefur, enloplatin, enpromate, epipropidine, epirubicin, epirubicin hydrochloride, epristeride, erbulozole, erythrocyte gene therapy vector system, esorubicin hydrochloride, estramustine, estramustine analog, estramustine phosphate sodium, estrogen agonists, estrogen antagonists, etanidazole, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, etoprine, exemestane, fadrozole, fadrozole hydrochloride, fazarabine, fenretinide, filgrastim, finasteride, flavopiridol, flezelastine, floxuridine, fluasterone, fludarabine, fludarabine phosphate, fluorodaunorunicin hydrochloride, fluorouracil, fluorocitabine, forfenimex, formestane, fosquidone, fostriecin, fostriecin sodium, fotemustine, gadolinium texaphyrin, gallium nitrate, galoCitabine, ganirelix, gelatinase inhibitors, gemcitabine, gemcitabine hydrochloride, glutathione inhibitors, hepsulfam, heregulin, hexamethylene bisacetamide, hydroxyurea, hypericin, ibandronic acid, idarubicin, idarubicin hydrochloride, idoxifene, idramantone, ifosfamide, ilmofosine, ilomastat, imidazoacridones, imiquimod, immunostimulant peptides, insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor inhibitor, interferon agonists, interferon alpha-2A, interferon alpha-2B, interferon alpha-N1, interferon alpha-N3, interferon beta-IA, interferon gamma-IB, interferons, interleukins, iobenguane, iododoxorubicin, iproplatin, irinotecan, irinotecan hydrochloride, iroplact, irsogladine, isobengazole, isohomohalicondrin B, itasetron, jasplakinolide, kahalalide F, lamellarin-N triacetate, lanreotide, lanreotide acetate, leinamycin, lenograstim, lentinan sulfate, leptolstatin, letrozole, leukemia inhibiting factor, leukocyte alpha interferon, leuprolide acetate, leuprolide/estrogen/progesterone, leuprorelin, levamisole, liarozole, liarozole hydrochloride, linear polyamine analog, lipophilic disaccharide peptide, lipophilic platinum compounds, lissoclinamide 7, lobaplatin, lombricine, lometrexol, lometrexol sodium, lomustine, lonidamine, losoxantrone, losoxantrone hydrochloride, lovastatin, loxoribine, lurtotecan, lutetium texaphyrin, lysofylline, lytic peptides, maitansine, mannostatin A, marimastat, masoprocol, maspin, matrilysin inhibitors, matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors, maytansine, mechlorethamine hydrochloride, megestrol acetate, melengestrol acetate, melphalan, menogaril, merbarone, mercaptopurine, meterelin, methioninase, methotrexate, methotrexate sodium, metoclopramide, metoprine, meturedepa, microalgal protein kinase C inhibitors, MIF inhibitor, mifepristone, miltefosine, mirimostim, mismatched double stranded RNA, mitindomide, mitocarcin, mitocromin, mitogillin, mitoguazone, mitolactol, mitomalcin, mitomycin, mitomycin analogs, mitonafide, mitosper, mitotane, mitotoxin fibroblast growth factor-saporin, mitoxantrone, mitoxantrone hydrochloride, mofarotene, molgramostim, monoclonal antibody, human chorionic gonadotrophin, monophosphoryl lipid a/myobacterium cell wall SK, mopidamol, multiple drug resistance gene inhibitor, multiple tumor suppressor 1-based therapy, mustard anticancer agent, mycaperoxide B, mycobacterial cell wall extract, mycophenolic acid, myriaporone, n-acetyldinaline, nafarelin, nagrestip, naloxone/pentazocine, napavin, naphterpin, nartograstim, nedaplatin, nemorubicin, neridronic acid, neutral endopeptidase, nilutamide, nisamycin, nitric oxide modulators, nitroxide antioxidant, nitrullyn, nocodazole, nogalamycin, n-substituted benzamides, O6-benzylguanine, octreotide, okicenone, oligonucleotides, onapristone, ondansetron, oracin, oral cytokine inducer, ormaplatin, osaterone, oxaliplatin, oxaunomycin, oxisuran, paclitaxel, paclitaxel analogs, paclitaxel derivatives, palauamine, palmitoylrhizoxin, pamidronic acid, panaxytriol, panomifene, parabactin, pazelliptine, pegaspargase, peldesine, peliomycin, pentamustine, pentosan polysulfate sodium, pentostatin, pentrozole, peplomycin sulfate, perflubron, perfosfamide, perillyl alcohol, phenazinomycin, phenylacetate, phosphatase inhibitors, picibanil, pilocarpine hydrochloride, pipobroman, piposulfan, pirarubicin, piritrexim, piroxantrone hydrochloride, placetin A, placetin B, plasminogen activator inhibitor, platinum complex, platinum compounds, platinum-triamine complex, plicamycin, plomestane, porfimer sodium, porfiromycin, prednimustine, procarbazine hydrochloride, propyl bis-acridone, prostaglandin J2, prostatic carcinoma antiandrogen, proteasome inhibitors, protein A-based immune modulator, protein kinase C inhibitor, protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors, purine nucleoside phosphorylase inhibitors, puromycin, puromycin hydrochloride, purpurins, pyrazofurin, pyrazoloacridine, pyridoxylated hemoglobin polyoxyethylene conjugate, RAF antagonists, raltitrexed, ramosetron, RAS farnesyl protein transferase inhibitors, RAS inhibitors, RAS-GAP inhibitor, retelliptine demethylated, rhenium RE 186 etidronate, rhizoxin, riboprine, ribozymes, R11 retinamide, RNAi, rogletimide, rohitukine, romurtide, roquinimex, rubiginone B1, ruboxyl, safingol, safingol hydrochloride, saintopin, sarcnu, sarcophytol A, sargramostim, SDI 1 mimetics, semustine, senescence derived inhibitor 1, sense oligonucleotides, signal transduction inhibitors, signal transduction modulators, simtrazene, single chain antigen binding protein, sizofuran, sobuzoxane, sodium borocaptate, sodium phenylacetate, solverol, somatomedin binding protein, sonermin, sparfosate sodium, sparfosic acid, sparsomycin, spicamycin D, spirogermanium hydrochloride, spiromustine, spiroplatin, splenopentin, spongistatin 1, squalamine, stem cell inhibitor, stem-cell division inhibitors, stipiamide, streptonigrin, streptozocin, stromelysin inhibitors, sulfinosine, sulofenur, superactive vasoactive intestinal peptide antagonist, suradista, suramin, swainsonine, synthetic glycosaminoglycans, talisomycin, tallimustine, tamoxifen methiodide, tauromustine, tazarotene, tecogalan sodium, tegafur, tellurapyrylium, telomerase inhibitors, teloxantrone hydrochloride, temoporfin, temozolomide, teniposide, teroxirone, testolactone, tetrachlorodecaoxide, tetrazomine, thaliblastine, thalidomide, thiamiprine, thiocoraline, thioguanine, thiotepa, thrombopoietin, thrombopoietin mimetic, thymalfasin, thymopoietin receptor agonist, thymotrinan, thyroid stimulating hormone, tiazofurin, tin ethyl etiopurpurin, tirapazamine, titanocene dichloride, topotecan hydrochloride, topsentin, toremifene, toremifene citrate, totipotent stem cell factor, translation inhibitors, trestolone acetate, tretinoin, triacetyluridine, triciribine, triciribine phosphate, trimetrexate, trimetrexate glucuronate, triptorelin, tropisetron, tubulozole hydrochloride, turosteride, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, tyrphostins, UBC inhibitors, ubenimex, uracil mustard, uredepa, urogenital sinus-derived growth inhibitory factor, urokinase receptor antagonists, vapreotide, variolin B, velaresol, veramine, verdins, verteporfin, vinblastine sulfate, vincristine sulfate, vindesine, vindesine sulfate, vinepidine sulfate, vinglycinate sulfate, vinleurosine sulfate, vinorelbine, vinorelbine tartrate, vinrosidine sulfate, vinxaltine, vinzolidine sulfate, vitaxin, vorozole, zanoterone, zeniplatin, zilascorb, zinostatin, zinostatin stimalamer, and zorubicin hydrochloride, as well as salts, homologs, analogs, derivatives, enantiomers and/or functionally equivalent compositions thereof.

Other examples of agents useful in the treatment of cancer include, but are not limited to, one or more of Ributaxin, Herceptin, Quadramet, Panorex, IDEC-Y2B8, BEC2, C225, Oncolym, SMART M195, ATRAGEN, Ovarex, Bexxar, LDP-03, ior t6, MDX-210, MDX-11, MDX-22, OV103, 3622W94, anti-VEGF, Zenapax, MDX-220, MDX-447, MELIMMUNE-2, MELIMIVIUNE-1, CEACIDE, Pretarget, NovoMAb-G2, TNT, Gliomab-H, GNI-250, EMD-72000, LymphoCide, CMA 676, Monopharm-C, 4B5, ior egf. r3, ior c5, BABS, anti-FLK-2, MDX-260, ANA Ab, SMART 1D10 Ab, SMART ABL 364 Ab and ImmuRAIT-CEA.

An “infectious disease” as used herein, refers to a disorder arising from the invasion of a host, superficially, locally, or systemically, by an infectious microorganism. Infectious microorganisms include, but are not limited to, bacteria, viruses, fungi, molds, etc. Examples of therapeutic agents and drugs that can be used in combination with one or more compositions of the invention for the treatment of infectious disease include anti-microbial agents, antibacterial agents, antiviral agents, nucleotide analogs, antifungal agents antibiotics, etc. Such agents and/or drugs include naturally-occurring or synthetic compounds that are capable of killing or inhibiting infectious microorganisms. The type of anti-microbial agent useful according to the invention will depend upon the type of microorganism with which the subject is infected or at risk of becoming infected.

Antibiotics potentially useful in the invention include broad spectrum antibiotics and narrow spectrum antibiotics. Antibiotics that are effective against a single organism or disease and not against other types of bacteria, are generally referred to as limited spectrum antibiotics. In general, antibacterial agents are cell wall synthesis inhibitors, such as beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., carbapenems and cephalolsporins, including cephalothin, cephapirin, cephalexin, cefamandole, cefaclor, cefazolin, cefuroxine, cefoxitin, cefotaxime, cefsulodin, cefetamet, cefixime, ceftriaxone, cefoperazone, ceftazidine, moxalactam, etc.), natural penicillins, semi-synthetic penicillins (e.g., ampicillin, carbenicillin, oxacillin, aziocillin, mezlocillin, piperacillin, methicillin, dicloxacillin, nafcillin, etc.), ampicillin, clavulanic acid, cephalolsporins, bacitracin, etc.; cell membrane inhibitors (e.g., polymyxin, amphotericin B, nystatin, imidazoles including clotrimazole, miconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, fluconazole, etc.); protein synthesis inhibitors (e.g., tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, macrolides such as erythromycin, aminoglycosides such as streptomycin, rifampins, ethambutol, streptomycin, kanamycin, tobramycin, amikacin, gentamicin, tetracyclines (e.g., tetracycline, minocycline, doxycycline, and chlortetracycline, etc.), erythromycin, roxithromycin, clarithromycin, oleandomycin, azithromycin, chloramphenicol, etc.); nucleic acid synthesis or functional inhibitors (e.g., quinolones, co-trimoxazole, rifamycins, etc.); competitive inhibitors (e.g., sulfonamides such as gantrisin, trimethoprim, etc.).

Antiviral agents are compounds which prevent infection of cells by viruses or replication of the virus within the cell. There are several stages within the process of viral infection which can be blocked or inhibited by antiviral agents. These stages include attachment of the virus to the host cell (e.g., immunoglobulin, binding peptides, etc.), uncoating of the virus (e.g. amantadine), synthesis or translation of viral mRNA (e.g. interferon), replication of viral RNA or DNA (e.g. nucleoside analogs), maturation of new virus proteins (e.g. protease inhibitors), budding and release of the virus, etc.

Nucleotide analogs are synthetic compounds which are similar to nucleotides, but which may have an incomplete or abnormal deoxyribose or ribose group. Nucleotide analogs include, but are not limited to, acyclovir, gancyclovir, idoxuridine, ribavirin, dideoxyinosine, dideoxycytidine, and zidovudine (azidothymidine).

Antifungal agents are useful for the treatment and prevention of infective fungi. Some anti-fungal agents function as cell wall inhibitors by inhibiting glucose synthase. These include, but are not limited to, basiungin/ECB. Other anti-fungal agents function by destabilizing membrane integrity. These include, but are not limited to, immidazoles, such as clotrimazole, sertaconzole, fluconazole, itraconazole, ketoconazole, miconazole, and voriconacole, as well as FK 463, amphotericin B, BAY 38-9502, MK 991, pradimicin, UK 292, butenafine, terbinafine, etc. Other anti-fungal agents function by breaking down chitin (e.g. chitinase) or immunosuppression (501 cream).

Therapeutic Formulations

In certain embodiments of the invention, a composition can be combined with a suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, for example, as incorporated into a liposome, incorporated into a polymer release system, or suspended in a liquid, e.g., in a dissolved form or a colloidal form. In general, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers suitable for use in the invention are well-known to those of ordinary skill in the art. As used herein, a “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” refers to a non-toxic material that does not significantly interfere with the effectiveness of the biological activity of the active compound(s) to be administered, but is used as a formulation ingredient, for example, to stabilize or protect the active compound(s) within the composition before use. A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier may be sterile in some cases. The term “carrier” denotes an organic or inorganic ingredient, which may be natural or synthetic; with which one or more active compounds of the invention are combined to facilitate the application of the composition. The carrier may be co-mingled or otherwise mixed with one or more active compounds of the present invention, and with each other, in a manner such that there is no interaction which would substantially impair the desired pharmaceutical efficacy. The carrier may be either soluble or insoluble, depending on the application. Examples of well-known carriers include glass, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyethylene, dextran, nylon, amylase, natural and modified cellulose, polyacrylamide, agarose and magnetite. The nature of the carrier can be either soluble or insoluble. Those skilled in the art will know of other suitable carriers, or will be able to ascertain such, using only routine experimentation.

In some embodiments, the compositions of the invention include pharmaceutically acceptable carriers with formulation ingredients such as salts, carriers, buffering agents, emulsifiers, diluents, excipients, chelating agents, fillers, drying agents, antioxidants, antimicrobials, preservatives, binding agents, bulking agents, silicas, solubilizers, or stabilizers that may be used with the active compound. For example, if the formulation is a liquid, the carrier may be a solvent, partial solvent, or non-solvent, and may be aqueous or organically based. Examples of suitable formulation ingredients include diluents such as calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, lactose, kaolin, calcium phosphate, or sodium phosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents such as corn starch or algenic acid; binding agents such as starch, gelatin or acacia; lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate, stearic acid, or talc; time-delay materials such as glycerol monostearate or glycerol distearate; suspending agents such as sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone; dispersing or wetting agents such as lecithin or other naturally-occurring phosphatides; thickening agents such as cetyl alcohol or beeswax; buffering agents such as acetic acid and salts thereof, citric acid and salts thereof, boric acid and salts thereof, or phosphoric acid and salts thereof; or preservatives such as benzalkonium chloride, chlorobutanol, parabens, or thimerosal. Suitable carrier concentrations can be determined by those of ordinary skill in the art, using no more than routine experimentation. The compositions of the invention may be formulated into preparations in solid, semi-solid, liquid or gaseous forms such as tablets, capsules, elixirs, powders, granules, ointments, solutions, depositories, inhalants or injectables. Those of ordinary skill in the art will know of other suitable formulation ingredients, or will be able to ascertain such, using only routine experimentation.

Preparations include sterile aqueous or nonaqueous solutions, suspensions and emulsions, which can be isotonic with the blood of the subject in certain embodiments. Examples of nonaqueous solvents are polypropylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oil such as olive oil, sesame oil, coconut oil, arachis oil, peanut oil, mineral oil, injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate, or fixed oils including synthetic mono or di-glycerides. Aqueous carriers include water, alcoholic/aqueous solutions, emulsions or suspensions, including saline and buffered media. Parenteral vehicles include sodium chloride solution, 1,3-butandiol, Ringer's dextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride, lactated Ringer's or fixed oils. Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers, electrolyte replenishers (such as those based on Ringer's dextrose), and the like. Preservatives and other additives may also be present such as, for example, antimicrobials, antioxidants, chelating agents and inert gases and the like. Those of skill in the art can readily determine the various parameters for preparing and formulating the compositions of the invention without resort to undue experimentation.

In some embodiments, the present invention includes the step of bringing a composition of the invention into association or contact with a suitable carrier, which may constitute one or more accessory ingredients. The final compositions may be prepared by any suitable technique, for example, by uniformly and intimately bringing the composition into association with a liquid carrier, a finely divided solid carrier or both, optionally with one or more formulation ingredients as previously described, and then, if necessary, shaping the product.

In some embodiments, the compositions of the present invention may be present as a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” includes salts of the composition, prepared in combination with, for example, acids or bases, depending on the particular compounds found within the composition and the treatment modality desired. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts can be prepared as alkaline metal salts, such as lithium, sodium, or potassium salts; or as alkaline earth salts, such as beryllium, magnesium or calcium salts. Examples of suitable bases that may be used to form salts include ammonium, or mineral bases such as sodium hydroxide, lithium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, and the like. Examples of suitable acids that may be used to form salts include inorganic or mineral acids such as hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydroiodic, hydrofluoric, nitric, carbonic, monohydrogencarbonic, phosphoric, monohydrogenphosphoric, dihydrogenphosphoric, sulfuric, monohydrogensulfuric, phosphorous acids and the like. Other suitable acids include organic acids, for example, acetic, propionic, isobutyric, maleic, malonic, benzoic, succinic, suberic, fumaric, mandelic, phthalic, benzenesulfonic, p-tolylsulfonic, citric, tartaric, methanesulfonic, glucuronic, galacturonic, salicylic, formic, naphthalene-2-sulfonic, and the like. Still other suitable acids include amino acids such as arginate, aspartate, glutamate, and the like.

Kits

The present invention also provides any of the above-mentioned compositions in kits, optionally including instructions for use of the composition. That is, the kit can include a description of use of the composition for participation in any mechanism described herein. A “kit,” as used herein, typically defines a package or an assembly including one or more of the compositions of the invention, and/or other compositions associated with the invention, for example, as previously described. Each of the compositions of the kit may be provided in liquid form (e.g., in solution), or in solid form (e.g., a dried powder). In certain cases, some of the compositions may be constitutable or otherwise processable (e.g., to an active form), for example, by the addition of a suitable solvent or other species, which may or may not be provided with the kit. Examples of other compositions or components associated with the invention include, but are not limited to, solvents, surfactants, diluents, salts, buffers, emulsifiers, chelating agents, fillers, antioxidants, binding agents, bulking agents, preservatives, drying agents, antimicrobials, needles, syringes, packaging materials, tubes, bottles, flasks, beakers, dishes, frits, filters, rings, clamps, wraps, patches, containers, and the like, for example, for using, administering, modifying, assembling, storing, packaging, preparing, mixing, diluting, and/or preserving the compositions components for a particular use, for example, to a sample and/or a subject. When the composition provided is a dry powder, the composition may be reconstituted by the addition of a suitable solvent, which may also be provided. In embodiments where liquid forms of the composition are used, the liquid form may be concentrated or ready to use. The solvent will depend on the composition and the mode of use or administration. Suitable solvents for the compositions are well known, and are available in the literature. The solvent will depend on the composition and the mode of use or administration.

A kit of the invention may, in some cases, include instructions in any form that are provided in connection with the compositions of the invention in such a manner that one of ordinary skill in the art would recognize that the instructions are to be associated with the compositions. For instance, the instructions may include instructions for the use, modification, mixing, diluting, preserving, administering, assembly, storage, packaging, and/or preparation of the compositions and/or other compositions associated with the kit. In some cases, the instructions may also include instructions for the delivery and/or administration of the compositions, for example, for a particular use, e.g., to a sample and/or a subject. The instructions may be provided in any form recognizable by one of ordinary skill in the art as a suitable vehicle for containing such instructions, for example, written or published, verbal, audible (e.g., telephonic), digital, optical, visual (e.g., videotape, DVD, etc.) or electronic communications (including Internet or web-based communications), provided in any manner. Instructions may also provide for administering the composition by any suitable technique as previously described, for example, orally, intravenously, pump or implantable delivery device, or via another known route of drug delivery.

The invention also involves, in another aspect, promotion of the use of the compositions of the invention according to any of the techniques described herein. As used herein, “promoted” includes all methods of doing business including, but not limited to, methods of selling, advertising, assigning, licensing, contracting, instructing, educating, researching, importing, exporting, negotiating, financing, loaning, trading, vending, reselling, distributing, repairing, replacing, insuring, suing, patenting, or the like that are associated with the systems, devices, apparatuses, articles, methods, compositions, kits, etc. of the invention as discussed herein. Methods of promotion can be performed by any party including, but not limited to, personal parties, businesses (public or private), partnerships, corporations, trusts, contractual or sub-contractual agencies, educational institutions such as colleges and universities, research institutions, hospitals or other clinical institutions, governmental agencies, etc. Promotional activities may include communications of any form (e.g., written, oral, and/or electronic communications, such as, but not limited to, e-mail, telephonic, Internet, Web-based, etc.) that are clearly associated with the invention.

In one set of embodiments, the method of promotion may involve one or more instructions. As used herein, “instructions” can define a component of instructional utility (e.g., directions, guides, warnings, labels, notes, FAQs or “frequently asked questions,” etc.), and typically involve written instructions on or associated with the invention and/or with the packaging of the invention. Instructions can also include instructional communications in any form (e.g., oral, electronic, audible, digital, optical, visual, etc.), provided in any manner such that a user will clearly recognize that the instructions are to be associated with the invention, e.g., as discussed herein.

The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments of the present invention, but do not exemplify the full scope of the invention.

Dendritic cells and the immune response In recent years the dual immunological function of dendritic cells has become increasingly appreciated. On the one hand, dendritic cells are the most potent of the professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in initiating immune responses to pathogens; in the absence of infection, however, dendritic cells play a second, crucial role of maintaining peripheral tolerance by regulating the numbers and states of self-reactive T cells. Given the importance of dendritic cells in orchestrating the human immune system along these two paths, strategies that can selectively access these different functions will greatly advance immunotherapy and facilitate the design of more rational, mechanistic vaccines. The selective modulation of dendritic cells function in the steady state, however, will depend upon the ability to specifically target dendritic cells and dendritic cell subsets.

One approach to accessing dendritic cells in vivo consists of targeting dendritic cell-specific surface receptors with ligand-antigen or ligand mimetic-antigen conjugates that deliver targeted antigens to the antigen processing/presentation machinery of dendritic cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis. One such manifestation of this strategy involves chemically coupling an antibody against a defined dendritic cell surface receptor to an antigen of interest. Antibody targeting of the dendritic cells integrin CD11c, for example, has been reported to dramatically improve the kinetics and quality of antibody responses against a model antigen in mice. At the other end of the immunological spectrum of responses, Steinman and colleagues targeted the C-type lectin DEC-205 with anti-DEC-205-antigen conjugates and demonstrate the dendritic cell-mediated induction of T cell tolerance²⁻⁴. These studies demonstrate that targeting dendritic cells in vivo can led to defined immunological outcomes, and serve to underscore the fact that targeting different receptors on the same cell type can produce dramatically different results. This latter facet is probably due in large part to the differential activation of signal transduction pathways downstream of receptor ligation.

While antibodies can offer unparalleled specificity for their cognate antigens, as a therapeutic agent they have the distinct disadvantages of being very expensive to produce and immunogenic in many patients. In addition to these issues, there may be circumstances in which more versatile chemistries are required for the formation of an antigen conjugate than those offered by the antibody's protein sequence. Thus, a need exists for developing robust, therapeutically useful methods of accessing dendritic cells in vivo.

As reported in more detail below, the use of synthetic carbohydrate structures offers an alternative to antibody-based targeting of dendritic cells. Dendritic cells express a number of cell surface lectins of the C-type class that recognize carbohydrate ligands appended to glycoproteins and, in some cases, mediate adsorptive uptake of bound ligand. With carbohydrate chemistry at a stage where biologically useful quantities of complex oligosaccharide can be routinely prepared⁵ and with glycan microarrays that can aid in the determination of highly specific lectin-ligand interactions⁶, the requisite tools are in place to pursue a dendritic cell targeting strategy founded upon lectin-carbohydrate interactions.

During a microarray study of the dendritic cell lectin DC-SIGN, lectin recognition of proteins chemically modified with structure 3-1, which is shown in FIG. 1, was observed. These results suggested that high-mannose oligosaccharides could be successfully used to target dendritic cells. The utility of this approach is demonstrated herein using mouse dendritic cells and T cells which facilitate tracking of T cell responses to dendritic cell-presented antigen in a physiological in vivo setting. The examples provided below report the successful evaluation of these conjugates' ability to enhance presentation of antigenic peptides to T cells and the application of these conjugates in an in vivo setting.

EXAMPLE 1 Carbohydrate Modification of a Model Antigen Leads to Enhanced Presentation

To examine the ability of high-mannose oligosaccharide-antigen conjugates to engage DC surface receptors such as lectins and led to presentation through the MHC class I and class II pathways, a series of ovalbumin (OVA) conjugates bearing structures shown in FIG. 1 (structures 3-1 thru 3-7) was prepared. OVA is a useful model antigen to work with as it is known to be presented on H-2K^(b) MHC class I molecules to CD8⁺ T cells and I-A^(b) MHC class II molecules to CD4⁺ T cells³; transgenic mice bearing only these T cell receptor specificities have been generated and were employed here to monitor the T cell responses to DC-presented peptides.

OVA was modified with the heterobifunctional crosslinker SMCC to introduce maleimide functional groups; incubation with thiol-bearing saccharides (structures 3-1 thru 3-7 in FIG. 1) led to the formation of carbohydrate-OVA conjugates with an average coupling efficiency of 40% (FIG. 2A). An average of three saccharides were added per molecule of OVA, leading to a change in OVA molecular weight from 45 kDa to 48-50 kDa, depending on the appended structure.

The ability of these conjugates to enhance antigen uptake by dendritic cells was assessed in comparison to unmodified OVA by incubating graded doses of conjugate and OVA with unfractionated splenocytes (containing T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, macrophages) isolated from OTII (CD4⁺) transgenic mice. The ability of dendritic cells to present antigenic peptides derived from targeted proteins was measured as a function of T cell proliferation in response to those presented peptides. T cell proliferation is quantified by [³H]thymidine incorporation during cellular division. All conjugates tested resulted in a reproducible enhancement of antigen uptake and presentation to T cells when compared to unmodified OVA over the same dosage range (FIG. 2B).

Among the structures tested, the nonasaccharide 3-1 led to the greatest enhancement of T cell proliferation compared to OVA. To verify that this enhancement was due to the carbohydrate moiety attached to OVA, splenocytes were incubated with conjugate (OVA)-3-1 in the presence and absence of an unrelated protein, bovine serum albumin (BSA) that was also modified with 3-1. Because peptides derived from BSA cannot be recognized by the transgenic OTII cells, competitive inhibition of OVA-3-1 uptake by (BSA)-3-1 led to a corresponding diminution of OTII proliferation (FIG. 2C), indicating that uptake of (OVA)-3-1 was due to the appended oligosaccharide. Co-incubation of unmodified BSA did not affect (OVA)-3-1 promoted enhancements. To ensure that the (OVA)-3-1 conjugate was not directly activating T cells and inducing their proliferation, a small amount (0.05 μg mL⁻¹) of (OVA)-3-1 was added to the graded doses of unmodified OVA. If (OVA)-3-1 directly activated T cells an enhanced level of T cell proliferation would be detected across the graded does of OVA compared to OVA alone. This did not occur (FIG. 2C). The T cell response curves for OVA vs. OVA+(OVA)-3-1 were identical. Furthermore, the addition of (OVA)-3-1 to purified T cells in the absence of antigen-presenting cells did not led to T cell proliferation nor did it enhance the mixed leukocyte reaction between dendritic cells and allogeneic T cells. This shows that these conjugates did not directly activate T cells or dendritic cells.

Microarray analysis of glycan binding by DC-SIGN revealed that DC-SIGN recognized both complex branched mannans, like 3-1 and 3-2, as well as dense arrays of linear oligosaccharides and simple monosaccharides. In addition, carbohydrate profiling by another group has revealed that DC-SIGN can recognize non-sialylated Lewis blood group antigens (e.g. Lewis^(x))⁷. As five murine homologs of DC-SIGN have been described⁸, with one homolog, CIRE, being expressed exclusively in CD8α CD4⁺ and CD8 α CD4 dendritic cells⁹, the possibility that a lectin with a DC-SIGN-like binding profile may be mediating the recognition and uptake of (OVA)-3-1 was tested by incubating splenocytes with (OVA)-3-1 in the presence or absence of mannose-derivatized BSA (mBSA) or Lewis^(x)-modified BSA (Lewis^(x)-BSA). Next the ability of these conjugates to inhibit uptake of (OVA)-3-1 was measured (FIG. 2D). Neither mBSA nor Lewis^(x)-BSA significantly impair endocytosis and presentation of (OVA)-3-1 to OTII T cells. These results demonstrated that neither of these conjugates serves as a ligand for the receptor mediating uptake of (OVA)-3-1.

Accessing the transporter of antigenic peptides (TAP) and thereby achieving cross-presentation of antigen by dendritic cells to MHC class I restricted CD8+ T cells led to efficient stimulation of these T cells and, in the steady state, their apoptotic deletion from the T cell repertoire³. To determine if the receptor promoting (OVA)-3-1 uptake can process proteins through the MHC class I pathway, (OVA)-3-1 and OVA were incubated with unfractionated splenocytes isolated from OTI (CD8⁺) mice. The T cells from transgenic OTI mice recognized an eight amino acid residue sequence (SIINFEKL (SEQ ID NO: 14)) derived from OVA and were therefore utilized to gauge the efficiency of DC presentation of MHC class I antigenic peptides. A moderate (10-fold) increase in the efficiency of MHC class I presentation with (OVA)-3-1 as compared to OVA alone was observed (FIG. 3A). Inhibition of this enhancement is again achieved by co-incubation with (BSA)-3-1 and, as shown for OTII T cells, (OVA)-3-1 did not achieve this enhancement via direct activation of T cells.

In an effort to determine whether the increased efficiencies of antigen presentation obtained via (OVA)-3-1 could be attained via simple monosaccharide-antigen conjugates, our splenocyte incubations with (OVA)-3-6 and (OVA)-3-7 was repeated (FIG. 3B). The monosaccharide mannose 3-6 only weakly enhanced presentation to CD4⁺ T cells, while galactose 3-7 did not promote increased presentation at all as compared to unmodified OVA. Interestingly, co-incubation of (OVA)-3-6 with (BSA)-3-1 did not inhibit the uptake of (OVA)-3-6, indicating that the monosaccharide 3-6 and the more complex 3-1 are likely to interact with different DC receptors.

EXAMPLE 2 Enhanced T Cell Proliferation is Due to Uptake Exclusively by CD11c⁺ Dendritic Cells

To confirm that the increased T cell proliferation observed with (OVA)-3-1 was due to the selective uptake of this conjugate by dendritic cells and not B cells or macrophages, purified CD11c⁺ dendritic cells were prepared from wild-type C57BL/6 mice and the OVA-specific T cells from transgenic OTII mice (see Materials & Methods). The in vitro antigen presentation assays described above were then repeated. A parallel titration series of (OVA)-3-1 and unmodified OVA revealed that CD11c⁺ dendritic cells were highly efficient at capturing and presenting (OVA)-3-1 as compared to soluble OVA, even at concentrations as low as 16 nM (FIG. 4 A). By comparison, >50-fold more unmodified OVA was required to obtain similar levels of T cell proliferation. When B cells and macrophages were used as antigen-presenting cells in place of purified dendritic cells, the resulting T cell responses were negligible (FIG. 4C), providing strong confirmation that CD11c⁺ dendritic cells are the main antigen-presenting cells mediating uptake and presentation of (OVA)-3-1 to OTII T cells. This latter result was also very strong confirmation that (OVA)-3-1 does not directly activate T cells; if direct activation of T cells by (OVA)-3-1 was operative, the levels of T cell proliferation observed here should have equaled the levels observed when dendritic cells are used as the antigen-presenting cells.

Attempts to inhibit (OVA)-3-1 internalization with mBSA and Lewis^(x)-BSA (FIG. 2D) may have missed the inhibitory effect of these molecules due to their potential effects on other non-dendritic cell types present in the splenocyte population. To address this possibility and to try other potential inhibitors of (OVA)-3-1 internalization, the inhibition experiment was repeated with purified dendritic cells and T cells (FIG. 4B). Neither mBSA nor Lewis^(x)-BSA were inhibitory; even when utilized at a>300-fold excess over (OVA)-3-1; soluble Lewis^(x) had marginal effects on (OVA)-3-1 presentation by dendritic cells. Likewise, a 1000-fold excess of soluble mannose only reduced conjugate presentation by 10%. More inhibitory were the complex mannan derived from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (31%) and the high-mannose-bearing glycoprotein invertase (18%). The inhibition of (OVA)-3-1 presentation with an invertase concentration of 0.5 μM compared to the 0.55 mM mannose concentration required to achieve similar levels of inhibition further underscores the specificity exhibited by the high-mannose oligosaccharide receptor on dendritic cells. Incubation with the common milk oligosaccharide, 3-fucosyllactose (3-FL), had no inhibitory action; in fact, a slight increase in T cell proliferation was observed with 3-FL (14%).

Some dendritic cell lectins are known to be strongly down-regulated upon toll-like receptor (TLR) engagement with bacterial agonists^(9,10). To determine whether the receptor mediating (OVA)-3-1 uptake was similarly down-regulated upon TLR engagement or if dendritic cell maturation induced by TLR agonists would further augment the presentation of (OVA)-3-1 to OTII T cells, an in vitro presentation assay was performed in which lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a potent agonist of the toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway¹¹, was added to graded doses of OVA or (OVA)-3-1 (FIG. 4C). As for the macrophage mannose receptor¹² and the DC-SIGN murine homolog CIRE, where TLR agonists led to dramatically decreased mRNA production for each lectin, a significant decrease (60%) in presentation of (OVA)-3-1 to T cells was observed as a result of TLR-mediated dendritic cell maturation. In the case of unmodified OVA, TLR activation led to a 30% decrease in antigen presentation to OTII T cells. Without being tied to one particular theory, this was likely due to a decrease in macropinocytosis by dendritic cells on the path to terminal differentiation.

Despite the significant diminution of (OVA)-3-1 presentation by dendritic cells upon TLR-4 stimulation, targeting with nonasaccharide 3-1 remained better than targeting by unmodified OVA, implying that antigen capture of (OVA)-3-1 by dendritic cells prior to full maturation was considerably more efficient than capture of unmodified OVA. Likewise, analysis of pro-inflammatory IFN-γ production by responding OTII T cells (FIG. 4D) showed an average of 40% less IFN-γ produced by T cells responding to OVA than to. (OVA)-3-1.

EXAMPLE 3 Both CD8α⁺ and CD8 α⁻ DC Subsets Present Carbohydrate-Modified Antigen

These results established that dendritic cells are the main antigen presenting cells capable of capture, processing, and presentation of (OVA)-3-1, but did not indicate whether a particular subset of dendritic cells was responsible for this activity. In the mouse, there are three subsets of dendritic cells, which are defined by their expression of the cellular antigens CD8 and CD4, namely CD8 α⁺CD4⁻, CD8α⁻CD4⁺, and CD8αCD4^(14,15). Many functional differences among these subsets have been described and it has been argued that the CD8α⁺ subset may be solely responsible for maintaining peripheral tolerance while the CD8α⁻ subset induces immunity to captured antigen¹⁴ To determine if the high-mannose receptor was restricted to a particular subset, a fluorescence cell sorter was used to separate dendritic cells into their respective CD8α⁺ and CD8α⁻ subsets. Each subset was then tested for its ability to present OVA and (OVA)-3-1 to OTII T cells (FIG. 5). Surprisingly, while OVA is only weakly presented to T cells by the individual subsets, (OVA)-3-1 is presented by each subset, with the CD8α⁺ subset being approximately 2-fold more efficient than the CD8α⁻ subset. Thus, both dendritic cell subsets expressed a receptor capable of binding nonasaccharide 3-1 and mediating uptake of antigens modified with this oligosaccharide.

EXAMPLE 4 In Vivo Targeting of Dendritic cells Leads to Antigen-Specific T Cell Activation

In order to determine the immunological implications of (OVA)-3-1 internalization and presentation by dendritic cells in vivo, the technique of adoptive transfer (FIG. 6A) was employed to track the T cell responses to DC presented antigen¹⁵. In this technique, ovalbumin-specific transgenic CD4⁺ T cells expressing a specific isoform of the surface antigen CD45 (designated CD45.2) was injected intravenously into a strain of mice that were genetically identical except at the CD45 locus. Using antibodies against the CD45.2 isoform expressed by the donor T cells, these cells can be distinguished from recipient cells during the course of an experiment.

CD45.2⁺ VA-specific T cells were transferred to B6.Ly5.2/Cr (CD45.1⁺) recipients and, after a twenty-four hour rest period, the mice were immunized subcutaneously with PBS, OVA or (OVA)-3-1. After seventy-two hours, cells were isolated from the draining inguinal lymph nodes and counted by FACS to determine the extent of OTII cell division induced by the immunization regimen (FIG. 6B). Immunization with the (OVA)-3-1 conjugate led to proliferation of OTH specific T cells in the draining lymph node, with a doubling of total OTII cell number compared to soluble OVA. In addition, an appreciable increase in the total OTII cell number in the spleen of (OVA)-3-1 immunized mice was observed, implying that the injected conjugate was capable of accessing dendritic cells at sites distal from the site of immunization. Thus, (OVA)-3-1 targeted dendritic cells in vivo and that targeting led to improved antigen-specific T cell activation relative to soluble antigen (FIGS. 6B and 6C).

EXAMPLE 5 Co-injection of a TLR Agonist did not Increase the Efficiency of (OVA)-3-Targeting Relative to Soluble OVA

A number of studies have indicated that dendritic cell presentation of poorly immunogenic soluble proteins can be significantly augmented by the concomitant administration of an adjuvant or agent that promotes the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α or IL-1β^(16,17). These cytokines aid in the recruitment and activation of monocytes and dendritic cells at the site of administration, thereby promoting a heightened immune response. As indicated by the in vitro data, TLR-4 signaling significantly attenuated (OVA)-3-1 processing and presentation by dendritic cells. To assess these results in vivo, the adoptive transfer system described above was used with the following modification. Prior to transferring the CD45.2 OTII T cells to the B6.Ly5.2/Cr recipients, the cells were stained with 5-(6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE), a cell-permeable dye that freely crosses the cell membrane; once inside the cell, however, cellular esterases hydrolyze the CFSE's ester functional groups to generate a negatively charged molecule that cannot cross back across the cell membrane. This dye is used to monitor cell division by flow cytometry as each successive cell division leads to a dilution of CFSE among the daughter cells.

To administer pro-inflammatory stimuli at the same time as soluble antigen, OVA and (OVA)-3-1 were emulsified in Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) prior to immunization. CFA is an oil-based mixture of mycobacterial cell wall components that is known to induce strong TH1 T cell responses². Seventy-two hours after immunization, cells from the draining lymph nodes were isolated and analyzed by flow cytometry for cell number and divisions (FIG. 7A). While the total OTH cell number increased for (OVA)-3-1 administered CFA relative to (OVA)-3-1 in PBS (FIGS. 6B and 7B), this did not result in a corresponding increase in cell number relative to OVA/CFA. In fact, the enhancement previously observed relative to soluble OVA (FIG. 6B) was largely diminished. Tracking CFSE dilution due to cell division indicated that more OTII cells are actively dividing in mice that received (OVA)-3-1/CFA than those that received OVA/CFA, suggesting that dendritic cells targeted by (OVA)-3-1 are slightly more efficient at promoting antigen-specific T cell proliferation under these pro-inflammatory conditions. Without being tied to one particular theory, one potential reason for this observation could be that dendritic cells targeted with (OVA)-3-1 produced more peptide-MHC class II complexes than those targeted by OVA as receptor-mediated endocytosis delivered more antigen to the cell before full maturation was reached¹⁰.

The strong enhancements observed with (OVA)-3-1 in vitro (FIG. 4A) appeared to be substantially reduced in vivo, possibly because other cells expressing a lectin capable of engaging high-mannose oligosaccharides could be competing with dendritic cells for (OVA)-3-1. Of the mammalian lectins known to bind high-mannose oligosaccharides, langerin (CD207)²⁰ and the mannose receptor (CD206)¹⁹ are appropriately anatomically positioned to bind and internalize injected (OVA)-3-1. Langerin is expressed in the Langerhans cells of the skin and has been demonstrated to mediate uptake of high-mannose bearing glycoproteins by these cells and cells transfected with cDNA encoding this receptor^(20,21). The mannose receptor is expressed in many different tissues and cell types. Its expression has also been confirmed on the endothelial venules leading to draining lymph nodes and on endothelial cells of the skin¹⁹.

To address the possibility that (OVA)-3-1 was competitively endocytosed by langerin and/or the mannose receptor, antigen immunizations were performed using a large excess of soluble mannose in an attempt to competitively inhibit this activity. This treatment did not led to an improvement of (OVA)-3-1-mediated targeting when the level of T cell proliferation was monitored as described above. Since most lectins have weak affinities for monosaccharides, these experiments were repeated with BSA that was modified with approximately 25 mannose residues per protein molecule (mBSA). Mannose-derivatized BSA was selected because it is a nanomolar ligand for the mannose receptor^(22,23) and has is bound by langerin in solid-phase binding studies²¹. Mice that had received CFSE-labeled OTH T cells were immunized with mBSA, OVA, (OVA)-3-1, OVA plus mBSA, or (OVA)-3-1 plus mBSA and their T cell responses were analyzed at seventy-two hours (FIG. 7B). Consistent with previous experiments, (OVA)-3-1 led to a 2-fold increase in OTII T cell number compared to OVA. In addition, 58% of these T cells had undergone cell division, whereas only 33% of the T cells in OVA immunized mice had divided. As anticipated, T cells from mice that had been immunized with mBSA did not proliferate because the appropriate antigenic peptides for OTII cells cannot be derived from BSA. Surprisingly, when OVA and (OVA)-3-1 were injected along with mBSA, an increase in OTII T cell number was observed for both antigens. The T cell number increased 1.7-fold in mice receiving soluble OVA plus mBSA (mBSA/OVA, FIG. 7B, bottom row) relative to the cell number observed for OVA alone. Likewise, the number of OTII T cells increased 2-fold for mBSA/(OVA)-3-1 injections as compared to (OVA)-3-1 alone. In addition to having an increased OTII cell numbers, both OVA and (OVA)-3-1 had increased percentages of cells undergoing cell division: T cells from the OVA group increased from 33% to 42%, while T cells from the (OVA)-3-1 group increased from 55% to 74%.

It is not yet clear how the co-injection of mannose-derivatized BSA led to the enhancements of T cell proliferation observed for both administered antigens. Without being tied to any particular theory, one explanation could be the presence of bacterial endotoxin in the mBSA preparation that could serve, to activate dendritic cells at the site of injection and thereby increase antigen presentation as was observed with CFA (FIG. 7A). Each mBSA preparation used throughout these studies was tested, and each had at most negligible quantities of endotoxin. Alternatively, mBSA blocked lectins that would normally bind OVA (which bears one N-linked glycan at Asn-392) in addition to (OVA)-3-1. This would enable both antigens to reach the draining lymph nodes where they would be endocytosed by dendritic cells and presented to T cells. Since the addition of mBSA to in vitro antigen presentation assays did not significantly effect presentation of (OVA)-3-1 or OVA to T cells (FIGS. 2D and 4B), with unfractionated OTII splenocytes or purified dendritic cells and T cells, mBSA does not appear to directly activate dendritic cells or T cells.

EXAMPLE 6 Oligosaccharide-Mediated Targeting of Steady State Dendritic cells Leads to a State of T Cell Unresponsiveness

At three days post-immunization, antibody-based targeting of the DEC-205 receptor led to a 6.5-fold enhancement of T cell activation relative to non-targeted antigen². After seven days, however, the activated T cell population diminished in number by 88% and the remaining T cells were unresponsive to systemic challenge of antigen in the highly stimulatory adjuvant CFA. A reproducible 2-fold enhancement of T cell activation with (OVA)-3-1 immunization was observed in saline and a four-fold enhancement with mBSA/(OVA)-3-1 immunization relative to OVA in saline. To more fully understand the immunological consequences of these enhancements, OVA peptide (100 μg) was administered in CFA at eight days post-antigen immunization and the T cells' ability to respond to DC-presented peptide in vitro was assayed two days later (FIGS. 8A and 8B)²: A positive control for T cell tolerance, consisting of a high dose administration of OVA peptide (100 μg) in Incomplete Freund's Adjuvant was also included. This regimen has been shown in a number of different studies to led to a state of T cell unresponsiveness upon antigen rechallenge^(24,25).

At two days post-antigen rechallenge in CFA a significant difference was observed in the number of OTII cells in (OVA)-3-1 relative to unmodified OVA (7.8-fold) and the saline control group (6-fold). Co-injection of mBSA with (OVA)-3-1 (mBSA/(OVA)-3-1) led to a 21-fold increase in OTII number compared to soluble OVA while the OTII number in the peptide/IFA control group was 26-fold greater than OVA.

When the T cells from each group were tested for their ability to respond to dendritic cell-presented peptide in vitro, OTII cells from the (OVA)-3-1 and mBSA/(OVA)3-1 groups were significantly less responsive to antigen than cells from the PBS and OVA groups, as was the peptide/IFA control group (FIG. 8B). This was very surprising as the OVA-specific T cell numbers for the (OVA)-3-1 and mBSA/(OVA)-3-1 groups were so much higher than the OVA and PBS groups, indicating that the latter two groups were strongly activated by the peptide/CFA rechallenge while the (OVA)-3-1 and mBSA/(OVA)-3-1 (in addition to the peptide/IFA control) were refractory to antigenic stimulation. This lack of antigen responsiveness is further mirrored in the levels of IFN-γ produced by these cells during the twenty-four hours of peptide stimulation in vitro (FIG. 8 B). While T cells from the PBS and OVA groups produced IFN-γ (and no IL-4) in response to peptide, indicating their TH1 status, there was no detectable IFN-γ produced by the (OVA)-3-1, mBSA/(OVA)-3-1, or, as previously documented, the peptide/IFA groups. IL-4 was also not detected in these groups, indicating a lack of T cell polarization. This indicated that nonasaccharide 3-1-mediated antigen delivery to dendritic cells in the steady state led to peripheral T cell unresponsiveness to subsequent antigenic rechallenge. In sum, a panel of synthetic analogs of the high-mannose oligosaccharide (Man)9(GlcNAc)2 was used to prepare carbohydrate-OVA conjugates for targeting murine dendritic cells. These synthetic oligosaccharides were shown to target CD11c⁺CD8α⁺ and CD11c⁺CD8α⁻ dendritic cells, deliver their appended antigen to the requisite antigen processing pathways for presentation on MHC class I and class II molecules, and enhanced activation of OVA-specific T cells. In vivo, a conjugate comprising (OVA)-3-1 targeted dendritic cells and increased the efficiency of presentation by 2-fold compared to unmodified OVA. The simultaneous co-injection of a highly mannosylated neoglycoprotein, mBSA, further enhanced dendritic cell targeting by (OVA)-3-1, leading to a 4-fold enhancement of T cell proliferation relative to OVA. Finally, the immunological outcome of oligosaccharide-mediated targeting of antigen to dendritic cells in the steady state promoted antigen-specific T cell tolerance, or unresponsiveness, demonstrated by the fact that T cells obtained from (OVA)-3-1 immunized mice were refractory to restimulation with peptide in vitro and do not appear to produce TH1 or TH2 cytokines.

Appreciable T cell deletion induced by (OVA)-3-1 targeting of dendritic cells in vivo was not observed (FIG. 8A). The expanded T cell population likely represents T regulatory cells induced by steady state dendritic cells. To determine if this is the case, OTII T cells are isolated from (OVA)-3-1 immunized mice (in parallel with PBS, OVA and peptide/IFA immunizations) and assayed for foxp3 expression by intracellular staining or PCR. (Foxp3 is an inhibitor of transcription that serves as a specific molecular signature of T regulatory cells)²⁶. In addition, T cells are tested at the functional level for their ability to suppress the proliferation of naive CD4⁺ T cells incubated with OVA-presenting Dendritic cells. While analyzing these cells for their status as canonical CD4⁺CD25⁺foxp3⁺ Tregs, their capacity to produce IL-10 and TGF-b is also assessed, as these are functional markers for another class of suppressive T cells referred to as TR1 cells²⁷. Finally, this targeting method and the antibody-based DEC-205 targeting method are compared to determine how the nonasaccharide 3-1 compares to the anti-DEC-205 antibody and to determine whether both methods elicit the same T cell phenotype.

To identify the receptor mediating uptake of the oligosaccharides employed herein, the murine DC-SIGN homolog CIRE¹⁰ was analyzed as a potential receptor; a cell line stably expressing this lectin was used to assay for binding and internalization of fluorophore-labeled 3-1 and fluorophore-labeled (OVA)-3-1. These experiments did not reveal any interactions between the high-mannose oligosaccharide and CIRE. Subsequent flow cytometry analysis of splenic dendritic cells with anti-CIRE antibody revealed that CIRE expression was low on CD11c⁺ dendritic cells. The receptor may be identified biochemically, for example, by cross-linking it to bound (OVA)-3-1 and immunoprecipitating the complex with polyclonal sera raised against ovalbumin. Identification of the receptor would enable the determination of its human homolog.

These studies are the first to identify the presence of a receptor on dendritic cells that preferentially engages complex, branched oligosaccharides over simple monosaccharides and that can be targeted in vivo to effect T cell function. Accordingly, the carbohydrate-based targeting approach described here is useful as an alternative to antibody-based targeting of lectins or other surface receptors, and provides a means to rationally modulate immune cell function.

These studies were carried out using the following methods and materials.

Mice

6-12 week old female mice were used in all experiments and were maintained under specific pathogen free conditions. C57BL/6 mice were purchased from Taconic and congenic B6.Ly5.2/Cr mice were purchased from NCI-Frederick. OTI and OTII mice were bred in an in-house facility; OTI mice were genotyped by analyzing expression of Vα₂Vβ_(5.1/5.2) by FACS.

Antibodies

Antibodies against CD45.2 (104) and all other surface markers (Vα2/B20.1, CD8α/53-6.7, I-A^(b)/AF6-120.1) were purchased from BD Biosciences (Mountain View, Calif.), as was streptavidin-APC. Rabbit anti-ovalbumin was purchased from Research Diagnostics (Concord Mass.).

Reagents

Mannose, invertase, mannan, and mannose-BSA, BSA, and ovalbumin were all purchased from Sigma Chemical (St. Louis, Mo.). 3-fucosyllactose, Lewis-^(x) and Lewis-^(x)-BSA were purchased from Dextra Laboratories (Reading, UK).

Carbohydrate Modification of Ovalbumin

1.9 mg sulfosuccinimidyl 4-[maleimidomethyl]-cyclohexane-1-carboxylate (Sulfo-SMCC, Pierce Endogen) was dissolved in 88 μL dimethylformamide (DMF) and added to 5 mg ovalbumin (OVA) in 315 μl, PBS. The reaction solution was mixed for 1 hour at room temperature. Maleimide-activated OVA was purified from nonreacted Sulfo-SMCC by gel filtration on a NAP-25 desalting column (Amersham) preequilibrated in PBS. The OVA fractions were collected and mixed with thiol-containing oligosaccharides (0.6 μmoles/per structure) that had been previously reduced with 1 equivalent tris-(carboxyethyl)phosphine hydrochloride (TCEP). This reaction proceeded for 12 hours at room temperature with constant mixing. Modified OVA was purified from excess oligosaccharide by multiple rounds of centrifugal ultrafiltration with Vivaspin 10,000 MW cut-off cartridges (Vivascience). Purified protein was lyophilized and stored at −20° C. until use.

Cell Culture and Proliferation Assays

Pooled inguinal lymph nodes were dissociated in 10% Fetal Bovine Serum RPMI (supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine) and either mechanically dissociated between two glass slides or, to improve the overall cell yield, incubated in the presence of collagenase (Boehringer) and EDTA for 25 minutes at 37° C./5% CO2 to dissociate DC-T cell clusters. For antigen presentation assays with whole splenocytes, isolated spleens were injected with collagenase/EDTA, gently teased apart and incubated as described above. Splenocytes were cultured in 96-well round-bottom plates at a density of 3×10⁵ cells/0.2 mL. In antigen presentation assays utilizing purified dendritic cells and T cells, dendritic cells were isolated from the spleens of C57BL/6 mice following collagenase/EDTA treatment by labeling the dendritic cells with commercially available magnetic microbeads linked to an anti-CD11c⁺ antibody (Miltenyi Biotec, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany) (according to the Miltenyi Biotec protocol) and separating labeled Dendritic cells from non-dendritic cells by application of a magnetic field. Similarly, purified CDC T cells were obtained from spleens of OTII transgenic mice using magnetic beads Dynal (Oslo, Norway). Purified dendritic cells and T cells were seeded onto 96-well plates round-bottom Plates at a 1:2 DC:T cell ratio unless stated otherwise in the Figures.

For T cell proliferation assays in adoptive transfer experiments, inguinal lymph nodes from each experimental group (3 mice/group) were pooled and dissociated with collagenase/EDTA as described above. In order to ensure that the CD4+ T cells were not activated during the isolation procedure, the cells were purified by negative selection using a biotinylated antibody cocktail against CD8α, CD11b, CD45R, DX5, and Ter-119 followed by magnetic anti-biotin microbeads. Labeled cells were separated from CD⁴+ T cells by application of a magnetic field. Purified T cells (3×10⁵/well) were seeded into 96-well round-bottom plates with purified CD11c⁺ dendritic cells (9×10⁴/well). Synthetic OTII OVA peptide [KISQAVHAAHAEINEAG] (SEQ ID NO: 15) was added to half of the cultures at a final concentration of 100 μg mL⁻¹. Cultures were maintained for 24 hours with [³H]thymidine (1 μCi) added for the last 10 hours. Response to OVA peptide was determined by subtracting background proliferation (no peptide) from specific, peptide-induced proliferation. The total antigen-specific (i.e., background subtracted) counts were divided by the number of OTII cells per well (obtained by flow cytometry, FIG. 8A) to determine the radioactive counts per cell. The proliferation index was calculated as the ratio of the response to OVA peptide in an experimental group to the response to OVA peptide in the PBS group.

Cell Sorting

To obtain sufficient numbers of dendritic cells for antigen presentation and cytokine analysis, C57BL/6 mice were injected with a Flt3-ligand secreting tumor cell line to promote the expansion of dendritic cells. Fourteen days after this administration the mice were sacrificed and the spleens were isolated. Dendritic cells were purified from the spleens by positive selection with anti-CD11c microbeads as described above and stained with FITC-conjugated anti-1-A^(b) and cychrome-conjugated anti-CD8α. Cells were then sorted on a fluorescence-activated cell sorter, a MoFlo, (Dakocytomaton, Glostrup Denmark) into CD8α⁺I-A^(b+) and CD8α⁻I-A^(b+) populations. The purity of each subset was 80% with approximately 6% cross-contamination. Dendritic cells from each subset were used in antigen proliferation assays as described above (section 3.5.5).

Adoptive Transfer and CFSE Labeling

Spleens from OTII mice were mechanically dissociated, filtered, washed 2× in PBS and then resuspended at 1×10⁸ cells mL⁻¹ in PBS. Cells were transferred to B6.Ly5.2/Cr mice by retro-orbital intravenous injection (200 μL/mouse). Alternatively, the cells were resuspended in RPMI (no FBS) at 5×10⁷ cells mL⁻¹ after being filtered and incubated with an equal volume of 30 μM CFSE in PBS to obtain a final CFSE concentration of 15 μM. Cells were incubated in a 37° C. water-bath for 10 minutes and then washed 1× with 10% FBS/RPMI and 2× with PBS. CFSE-labeled cells were diluted to 1×10⁸ cells mL⁻¹ in PBS and injected into B6.Ly5.2/Cr.

Cytokine ELISAs

75-150 μL aliquots of supernatant were sampled from antigen presentation assays at 24, 48, and 72 hours. 75 μL aliquots were removed from the antigen rechallenge assays at 14 hours, prior to the addition of [³H]thymidine. 25 μL of each supernatant were diluted 1:1 with PBS/1% BSA and analyzed in triplicate for IFN-γ, IL-10, and IL-4 using DuoSet ELISA reagents from R&D Systems. The lower limit of cytokine detection in these ELISAs was approximately 0.3 ng mL⁻¹.

While several embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the functions and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings of the present invention is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present invention is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present invention.

All definitions, as defined and used herein, should be understood to control over dictionary definitions, definitions in documents incorporated by reference, and/or ordinary meanings of the defined terms.

The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “one or more.”

The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with “and/or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” of the elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B”, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of”, when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

It should also be understood that, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, in any methods claimed herein that include more than one step or act, the order of the steps or acts of the method is not necessarily limited to the order in which the steps or acts of the method are recited.

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

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1. A composition comprising at least one mannose oligosaccharide conjugated to a molecule selected from the group consisting of a protein or glycoprotein, a lipid, chemically modified lipid, or glycolipid, polysaccharide, or small molecule, wherein the composition is capable of binding to a protein present on a dendritic cell.
 2. A composition comprising at least one carbohydrate conjugated to an antigen, wherein the composition is capable of binding to a carbohydrate binding protein present on an antigen presenting cell, and the carbohydrate is a mannose oligosaccharide.
 3. The composition of claim 2, wherein the carbohydrate binding protein is a lectin selected from the group consisting of an I-type, S-type, P-type, or C-type lectins.
 4. The composition of claim 2, wherein the addition of the oligosaccharide increases the molecular weight of the antigen by at least 5 kDa.
 5. The composition of claim 2, wherein the carbohydrate is selected from the group consisting of structures 3-1 to 3-7.
 6. The composition of claim 2, wherein the carbohydrate is (Man)₉(GlcNAc)₂.
 7. The composition of claim 2, wherein the carbohydrate is conjugated to the antigen by a thiol-bearing linker.
 8. The composition of claim 2, wherein the antigen is selected from the group consisting of autoimmune antigens, allergens, tumor antigens, and pathogen antigens.
 9. The composition of claim 8, wherein the pathogen antigen is derived from a bacteria, virus, or fungus.
 10. A composition comprising an antigen-carbohydrate conjugate that binds a lectin expressed on a human dendritic cell in vivo or ex vivo, the conjugate comprising mannose in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 11. The composition of claim 10, further comprising an adjuvant or a cytokine.
 12. The composition of claim 10, wherein the antigen comprises a protein, chemically-modified lipid, glycolipid, glycoprotein, polysaccharide, or small molecule.
 13. The composition of claim 10, wherein the lectin comprises a sequence SEQ ID NO:
 10. 14. An immunogenic composition comprising at least one mannose oligosaccharide conjugated to an antigen in a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, wherein the mannose oligosaccharide-antigen conjugate binds a lectin that is expressed on a dendritic cell wherein the composition is capable of modulating an immune response.
 15. The composition of claim 14, wherein the antigen comprises a protein, chemically-modified lipid, glycolipid, glycoprotein, polysaccharide, or small molecule.
 16. A method of immunization, comprising: administering to a subject a composition comprising a conjugate of an antigen and a mannose oliqosaccharide that binds a lectin expressed on an antigen-presenting cell, wherein the composition is in an amount effective to immunize the subject to the antigen.
 17. The method of claim 16, further comprising administering an adjuvant or a cytokine to the subject.
 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the amount is effective to promote dendritic cell maturation.
 19. The method of claim 16, wherein the mannose oligosaccharide comprises at least 2, mannose residues.
 20. The method of claim 16, wherein the lectin is selected from the group consisting of an I-type, S-type, P-type, C-type lectin, a Type I or Type II C-type lectin, DC-SIGN, Dectin 1 or 2, BDCA-2, and CLEC-1.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein the lectin comprises a sequence SEQ ID NO:
 10. 22. The method of claim 16, wherein the method induces immunological tolerance of the subject to the antigen.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the amount is effective to inhibit dendritic cell maturation.
 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the amount is effective to induce T cell anergy, deletion, or regulatory activity.
 25. A method of modulating an immune response in a cell, the method comprising contacting a cell of a subject with a composition of claim 16, wherein the contacting modulates an immune response.
 26. A method of reducing, stabilizing, or ameliorating symptoms of an immune response in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising contacting a cell of the subject with a composition of claim 1, wherein the contacting reduces, stabilizes, or ameliorates the immune response.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the immune response is an allergic response and the method ameliorates a disease or disorder selected from the group consisting of eczema, allergic rhinitis, coryza, hay fever, conjunctivitis, bronchial asthma, allergic asthma, urticaria, atopic dermatitis, anaphylaxis, food allergy, drug allergy, and angioedema.
 28. The method of claim 26, wherein the immune response is an autoimmune response and the method treats a disease or disorder selected from the group consisting of Addison's disease, autoimmune anemia, Goodpasture's syndrome, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura, type I diabetes, myasthenia gravis, ankylosing spondylitis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, Crohn's disease, scleroderma, Sjogren's syndrome, and systemic lupus erythematosus.
 29. The method of claim 26, wherein the immune response is a response to a pathogen infection that is a bacterial infection, a viral infection, or a fungal infection.
 30. The method of claim 26, wherein the cell is a dendritic cell that functions in an adaptive immune response.
 31. The method of claim 26, wherein the cell is ex vivo or in vivo.
 32. A method of enhancing antigen presentation by a cell, the method comprising contacting an antigen-presenting cell with at least one mannose oligosaccharide conjugated to an antigen or antigen mimetic, wherein the contacting enhances antigen presentation by the antigen-presenting cell.
 33. A method of increasing T cell proliferation in a subject, the method comprising contacting an antigen-presenting cell with at least one mannose oligosaccharide conjugated to an antigen or antigen mimetic, wherein the contacting enhances antigen presentation by the antigen-presenting cell.
 34. A kit for modulating an immune response, the kit comprising the composition of claim
 1. 35. The kit of claim 34, further comprising directions for administering the composition to the subject.
 36. A method of generating an antigen mannose oligosaccharide conjugate, the method comprising: conjugating an antigen to a mannose oligosaccharide able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the antigen comprises a protein, chemically-modified lipid, glycolipid, glycoprotein, polysaccharide, or small molecule.
 38. The method of claim 36, wherein the lectin comprises a sequence SEQ ID NO:
 10. 39. A method for producing a conjugated antigen, the method comprising: providing a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells; screening a carbohydrate library to identify carbohydrates able to bind the lectin; and conjugating an antigen to one of the identified carbohydrates able to bind the lectin.
 40. A method of immunization, comprising: administering, to a human or mammalian subject, a composition comprising a conjugate of an antigen and a carbohydrate, comprising mannose, that is able to bind a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells, in an amount effective to immunize the subject to the antigen.
 41. The method of claim 40, wherein the method induces immunological tolerance of the subject to the antigen.
 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the amount is effective to inhibit dendritic cell maturation.
 43. The method of claim 41, wherein the amount is effective to induce T cell anergy, deletion, or regulatory activity.
 44. A method for conjugating an antigen to a carbohydrate, the method comprising: providing a lectin that is expressed on antigen-presenting cells but is not substantially expressed on non-antigen-presenting cells; screening a carbohydrate library to identify carbohydrates able to bind the lectin; and conjugating an antigen to one of the identified carbohydrates able to bind the lectin.
 45. The composition of claim 8, wherein the tumor antigen is selected from the group consisting of alpha-fetoprotein, Ig-idiotype, mutant cyclin-dependent kinase 4, Pmel-17, MART-1, p15 protein, tyrosinase, MAGE 1, 2 and 3, a Gage family member, BAGE, human papilloma virus antigens E6 and E7, an Epstein-barr virus antigen, bcr-abl fusion product, gp75, oncofetal antigen, mucin, telomerase, GM2 ganglioside, GD2 ganglioside, mutant p53, mutant cdk4, p21ras, HER21neu, c-erbB-2, colorectal associated antigen (CRC)-C017-1A/GA733, APC, cyclophilin b, ga733 glycoprotein, Imp-1, EBNA-1, prostate specific antigen, pancreatic tissue antigen, prostate specific membrane antigen, thyroglobulin, carcinoembryonic antigen, NY-ESO-1, HTLV-1, cdc27, and gp100_(Pme1117).
 46. The composition of claim 9, wherein the virus is selected from the group consisting of Retroviridae, human immunodeficiency viruses, Picornaviridae, Calciviridae, Togaviridae, Flaviridae, Coronoviridae, Rhabdoviradae, Coronaviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Filoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Bungaviridae, Arena viridae, Reoviridae, Birnaviridae, Hepadnaviridae, Parvovirida, Papovaviridae, Adenoviridae (adenoviruses), Herpesviridae, Poxyiridae, and Iridoviridae.
 47. The composition of claim 9, wherein the antigen is selected from the group consisting of human immunodeficiency virus gp120 protein, malarial Merozoite Surface Protein-1, Apical membrane protein-1, Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein, tuberculosis antigen 85 A/B, ESAT-6, tuberculosis heat shock protein 60, influenza hemaglutinin, influenza neuraminidase, hepatitis B virus antigen.
 48. The composition of claim 46, wherein the human immunodeficiency virus is HIV-1.
 49. The composition of claim 2, wherein the oligosaccharide is selected from the group consisting of a branched oligosaccharide, linear oligosaccharide and polysaccharide. 